In News:

A bronze statue of Maharishi Sushruta, widely revered as the Father of Surgery, was recently unveiled at the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, United Kingdom, recognising his pioneering contributions to the development of surgery and medical science.

About Maharishi Sushruta

Maharishi Sushruta is regarded as one of the greatest physicians and surgeons of ancient India. Revered as the "Father of Surgery" and often referred to as the "Father of Indian Medicine," he made pioneering contributions to the fields of surgery, anatomy, and Ayurveda. His systematic approach to surgical practice laid the foundation for many principles that continue to influence modern medicine.

Although scholars differ regarding the exact period in which he lived, Sushruta is generally believed to have practised between 600 BCE and 1000 BCE. According to Ayurvedic tradition, he was a disciple of Lord Dhanvantari, the divine physician and the deity associated with Ayurveda. He is believed to have taught and practised medicine in Varanasi (Kashi), an important centre of learning in ancient India.

Sushruta Samhita

Sushruta's most celebrated contribution is the Sushruta Samhita, one of the foundational texts of Ayurveda and among the earliest comprehensive treatises on surgery in the world.

Composed over 2,500 years ago, the text contains 184 chapters covering various branches of medicine and surgery. It describes:

• More than 300 surgical procedures.
• Over 120 surgical instruments.
• Different types of wounds, fractures, dislocations, and their treatment.
• Detailed knowledge of toxicology, paediatrics, pharmacology, and general medicine.
• More than 100 medicinal plants, including their therapeutic properties and medicinal uses.

The text remains one of the most significant contributions to the history of medicine and Ayurveda.

Contributions to Surgery

Sushruta introduced a scientific and systematic approach to Shalya Tantra (Surgical Science), considering surgery an integral part of medical treatment.

His major contributions include:

• Development of rhinoplasty (nasal reconstruction), regarded as one of the earliest forms of plastic surgery.
• Surgical removal of bladder stones (lithotomy).
• Procedures for the removal of a dead foetus.
• Advanced methods for treating fractures, wounds, and dislocations.
• Design and use of specialised surgical instruments.
• Emphasis on cadaver dissection for understanding human anatomy.
• Use of herbal anaesthetics and systematic post-operative care.

His insistence on practical training, observation, and meticulous documentation established principles that continue to underpin surgical education.

Legacy

The influence of Maharishi Sushruta extended well beyond ancient India. His surgical techniques and medical knowledge were transmitted to other regions through translations and scholarly exchanges, contributing to the development of plastic surgery, orthopaedics, ophthalmology, and reconstructive surgery across the world.

His emphasis on scientific observation, ethical medical practice, and evidence-based treatment makes him one of the earliest pioneers of modern surgical science.

In News:

The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) has successfully concluded the first cohort of the BHARATI Programme, a flagship initiative aimed at promoting innovation and strengthening India's agri-food exports.

About BHARATI Programme

BHARATI (Bharat's Hub for Agritech, Resilience, Advancement and Incubation for Export Innovation) is a flagship startup acceleration programme launched by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA). The programme seeks to promote innovation-driven growth in India's agri-food export ecosystem by supporting technology-based startups working across the agriculture, food processing, and export value chains.

Designed as an export-focused incubation initiative, BHARATI aims to nurture 100 agri-food startups and contribute towards achieving USD 50 billion worth of exports in APEDA-scheduled products by 2030. Rather than replacing existing incubation programmes, it complements government and industry-led initiatives by helping startups become export-ready and globally competitive.

The programme is aligned with flagship national initiatives such as Atmanirbhar Bharat, Vocal for Local, Digital India, and Start-Up India.

Key Features

The BHARATI Programme focuses on promoting innovation in high-value export segments, including:

• GI-tagged agricultural products
• Organic foods
• Superfoods
• Novel processed Indian agri-food products
• Livestock products
• AYUSH products

A major emphasis is placed on the adoption of advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) for quality control, blockchain for product traceability, Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled cold chain management, and agri-fintech solutions. The programme also encourages innovations in sustainable packaging, logistics, and compliance with international sanitary and phytosanitary standards.

Addressing Export Challenges

BHARATI seeks to develop practical solutions to several bottlenecks affecting India's agri-food exports, including:

• Product development and value addition.
• Quality assurance and certification.
• Post-harvest losses and perishability.
• Supply chain and logistics inefficiencies.
• Export compliance and market access.

To achieve this, the programme creates a collaborative ecosystem connecting agri-food startups, technology providers, exporters, research institutions, and startups specialising in Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) standards.

Programme Structure

Selected startups undergo a three-month acceleration programme, during which they receive mentorship and support in areas such as:

• Product development.
• Export readiness.
• Regulatory compliance.
• International market access.
• Business scaling and investor engagement.

The programme equips startups with the knowledge and capabilities required to develop globally competitive export-oriented products.

In News:

The Hemis Festival 2026 commenced with great religious fervour at the historic Hemis Monastery in the Leh district of Ladakh, drawing devotees, monks, and tourists from across India and abroad.

About Hemis Festival

• The Hemis Festival, also known as Hemis Tsechu, is one of the most important Buddhist festivals of Ladakh.
• It is celebrated annually at the Hemis Monastery on the 10th day of the Tse-Chu month according to the Tibetan lunar calendar.
• The festival commemorates the birth anniversary of Guru Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche), who is revered in Tibetan Buddhism as the Second Buddha for spreading Vajrayana Buddhism across the Himalayan region and subduing evil forces.
• According to local tradition, Guru Padmasambhava visited Ladakh in the 8th century and is believed to have protected the region from negative forces, making the festival an important occasion of spiritual renewal and thanksgiving.

Religious and Cultural Significance

• The Hemis Festival is a vibrant expression of Tibetan Buddhist traditions, symbolising the victory of good over evil, spiritual purification, and compassion. Besides its religious importance, the festival plays a vital role in preserving Ladakh's rich cultural heritage and monastic traditions.

Major Attractions

• The celebrations are centred around the Hemis Monastery, one of the largest and wealthiest monasteries of the Drukpa Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. The monastery is adorned with colourful decorations, prayer flags, and religious ornaments during the festival.
• The principal attraction is the Cham Dance, a sacred masked dance performed by monks and lamas in elaborate costumes. Accompanied by drums, cymbals, and long horns, the dance symbolises the triumph of virtue over evil and narrates important episodes from Buddhist teachings.

Important Rituals

A distinctive ritual of the festival is the ceremonial destruction of a dough sculpture representing evil forces. At the conclusion of the ritual, the sculpture is broken into pieces and scattered in the four cardinal directions, symbolising the elimination of negativity and the purification of the soul.

As part of the local tradition, Chhang, a traditional fermented barley beverage of Ladakh, is served during the festivities.

Thangka Display

One of the most significant features of the Hemis Festival is the display of a giant Thangka (sacred Buddhist scroll painting) depicting Guru Padmasambhava.

This rare display takes place once every 12 years, during the Tibetan Year of the Monkey. The Thangka is richly decorated with semi-precious stones, pearls, and intricate embroidery, attracting thousands of pilgrims and tourists.

In News:

The Union Government has appointed Mahesh Dixit, a 1993-batch Indian Police Service (IPS) officer of the Andhra Pradesh cadre, as the new Director of the Intelligence Bureau (IB) for a tenure of two years. He succeeds Tapan Kumar Deka, who headed the agency for four years.

About the Intelligence Bureau (IB)

The Intelligence Bureau (IB) is India's premier domestic intelligence and internal security agency, functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA). It is responsible for collecting, analysing, and disseminating intelligence relating to threats affecting the country's internal security and public order.

The Bureau works in close coordination with central and state intelligence agencies, law enforcement organisations, and security forces to safeguard national security.

Historical Background

The Intelligence Bureau is one of the oldest intelligence organisations in the world. Its origins are generally traced to the establishment of the Central Special Branch in 1887 during British rule. Some historical accounts also associate its beginnings with the intelligence unit established by Major General Sir Charles Metcalfe MacGregor in 1885.

Following Independence, the Intelligence Bureau became India's principal agency for internal intelligence, while the Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) was created in 1968 to exclusively handle external intelligence.

Mandate and Functions

The Intelligence Bureau is entrusted with safeguarding India's internal security through intelligence gathering, analysis, and coordination.

Its major responsibilities include:

• Collection and dissemination of domestic intelligence.
• Counter-terrorism and counter-intelligence operations.
• Monitoring activities relating to extremism, insurgency, and secessionism.
• Assisting law enforcement agencies in preventing threats to national security.
• Protecting critical infrastructure, particularly civil aviation and other strategic installations.
• Conducting background verification for security clearances of diplomats, judges, senior government officials, and other sensitive appointments.

Composition

The Intelligence Bureau functions as a multidisciplinary organisation comprising officers drawn primarily from:

• Indian Police Service (IPS)
• Indian Revenue Service (IRS)
• Armed Forces
• Other Central and State Police Organisations

Personnel are generally inducted on deputation as well as through direct recruitment in specialised cadres.

Institutional Position

The Director of the Intelligence Bureau (DIB) is one of the country's highest-ranking intelligence officials.

The Director:

• Functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• Reports directly to the Prime Minister on matters relating to national security.
• Is a member of the Strategic Policy Group (SPG).
• Serves on the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) under the National Security Council (NSC) framework.

In News:

The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) recently clarified that an Indian passport is primarily a travel document and not conclusive proof of citizenship. The clarification has gained significance in the backdrop of the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls and the broader debate on citizenship verification.

Citizenship under Indian Law

• Citizenship in India is governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955, which prescribes the legal framework for acquiring, determining, and terminating citizenship.
• Unlike several countries, India does not possess a single universal document that conclusively establishes citizenship. Instead, citizenship is determined through the provisions of the Citizenship Act and established using relevant documentary evidence relating to birth, parentage, descent, registration, or naturalisation.
• The Supreme Court, in Sarbananda Sonowal v. Union of India (2005), held that the burden of proving Indian citizenship lies on the individual claiming it.

Is a Passport Proof of Citizenship?

• The Passport Manual describes an Indian passport as strong evidence of nationality, a view also recognised by the Supreme Court in Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978). However, it is not conclusive proof of citizenship in the event of a legal dispute.
• Further, Section 20 of the Passports Act, 1967 empowers the Central Government to issue passports to non-citizens in public interest under exceptional circumstances. This was reflected in the 2023 Madras High Court decision permitting a stateless Sri Lankan refugee to apply for an Indian passport.

Thus, while a passport generally indicates nationality for international travel, it does not by itself conclusively determine citizenship under Indian law.

Electoral Rolls and Citizenship

• The Supreme Court, in Lal Babu Hussein v. Electoral Registration Officer (1995), held that inclusion of a person's name in the electoral roll creates a presumption of citizenship, which can be displaced only through due legal process.
• More recently, in Association for Democratic Reforms & Others v. Election Commission of India (2026), the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) under Article 324 of the Constitution and Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950.
• The Court clarified that the ECI is empowered to undertake limited citizenship inquiries only for determining electoral eligibility. Importantly, deletion of a person's name from the electoral roll does not amount to loss of citizenship, as the authority to determine citizenship rests under the Citizenship Act, 1955, and not with the Election Commission. Suspected citizenship cases must be referred to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) for adjudication before elections.

Modes of Acquiring Indian Citizenship

The Citizenship Act, 1955 provides five modes of acquiring citizenship:

• By Birth
• By Descent
• By Registration
• By Naturalisation
• By Incorporation of Territory

India initially followed the principle of Jus Soli (right by birth) but gradually shifted towards Jus Sanguinis (right by blood/descent) through successive amendments.

The conditions for citizenship by birth are:

• 26 January 1950 – 1 July 1987: Every person born in India became a citizen irrespective of parents' nationality.
• 1 July 1987 – 3 December 2004: At least one parent must be an Indian citizen.
• On or after 3 December 2004: One parent must be an Indian citizen and the other must not be an illegal migrant.

Citizenship by descent applies to persons born outside India to Indian parent(s), subject to mandatory consular registration for births after 3 December 2004.

Citizenship by registration and naturalisation is available to eligible Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs), spouses of Indian citizens, and foreign nationals fulfilling prescribed residency conditions, generally 12 years. India does not permit dual citizenship.

Important Amendments

• The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2003 introduced stricter provisions by denying citizenship by birth where one parent is an illegal migrant and strengthened provisions relating to illegal migration.
• The Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA), 2019 reduced the residency requirement for acquiring citizenship by naturalisation from 11 years to 5 years for Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian migrants from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan who entered India on or before 31 December 2014 after facing religious persecution.

In News:

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is set to launch the Index of Services Production (ISP) in July 2026. The new index is expected to become India's first high-frequency indicator for measuring the performance of the services sector, similar to the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) for industry.

About the Index of Services Production (ISP)

The Index of Services Production (ISP) is a short-term economic indicator that measures changes in the real output of service-producing industries over time relative to a specified base year. It is being developed with 2024–25 as the proposed base year and will primarily use Goods and Services Tax (GST) data to capture economic activity in the formal services sector.

The objective of the ISP is to provide timely information on the growth and performance of India's services sector, which contributes the largest share to the country's Gross Value Added (GVA). The index is expected to improve short-term economic assessment and strengthen evidence-based policymaking.

Data Sources

The ISP will draw information from multiple administrative and statistical databases to ensure comprehensive coverage of service-sector activities.

Its principal data sources include:

• Administrative data for sectors such as air transport, railways, banking, and insurance.
• GST data for wholesale and retail trade, hospitality, road and water transport, warehousing, telecommunications, real estate, information technology services, professional services, and entertainment.
• Annual Survey of Incorporated Services Sector Enterprises (ASISSE) data for health and education services, which will be incorporated in subsequent phases.

Since the index is largely based on GST-registered enterprises, it will primarily reflect the performance of the formal services sector.

Key Features

• Base Year: 2024–25.
• Developed by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
• Measures changes in the volume of output rather than price changes.
• Sectoral weights are assigned based on each sector's contribution to Gross Value Added (GVA) as reported in the National Accounts Statistics (NAS).
• Designed to complement existing indicators such as the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) and national income estimates.

In News:

The Supreme Court has recently reiterated that the doctrine of constructive res judicata, embodied in Explanation IV to Section 11 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), 1908, is intended to prevent parties from litigating disputes in a piecemeal manner and to ensure finality in judicial proceedings.

What is Res Judicata?

The doctrine of Res Judicata is a well-established legal principle that originated in the English Common Law system. The Latin term res judicata literally means "a matter already judged." It is also referred to as the doctrine of claim preclusion.

The principle provides that once a competent court has finally decided a dispute between the same parties, the same matter cannot be litigated again before the same or another court. This prevents repeated lawsuits on identical issues and ensures certainty and finality in the administration of justice.

In India, the doctrine is codified under Section 11 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), 1908, and is applicable to both civil and criminal proceedings, though its operation differs according to the nature of the proceedings.

What is Constructive Res Judicata?

• Constructive Res Judicata is an extension of the doctrine of res judicata. It bars not only issues that were actually decided in an earlier suit but also issues that could and ought to have been raised during the earlier proceedings but were deliberately or negligently omitted.
• Thus, a party cannot file a fresh suit based on the same cause of action by raising new grounds that were available at the time of the earlier litigation. The law treats such omitted issues as if they had already been adjudicated.
• The doctrine derives its statutory basis from Order II Rule 2 read with Section 11 of the CPC, particularly Explanation IV to Section 11.

Explanation IV of Section 11

Explanation IV states:

"Any matter which might or ought to have been made a ground of defence or attack in a former suit shall be deemed to have been a matter directly and substantially in issue in such suit."

This legal fiction ensures that parties present their entire case in one proceeding rather than splitting their claims across multiple suits.

Essential Conditions

The doctrine of constructive res judicata applies when the following conditions are satisfied:

• The parties in both proceedings are the same or claim under the same parties.
• The subject matter of both proceedings is substantially identical.
• The issue raised in the subsequent suit could and ought to have been raised in the earlier proceeding.
• The earlier case was decided by a court of competent jurisdiction.
• The earlier decision attained finality and was decided on its merits.

Objectives

The doctrine seeks to:

• Prevent multiplicity of litigation.
• Ensure finality of judicial decisions.
• Avoid abuse of the judicial process.
• Promote judicial economy and efficient use of court resources.
• Protect parties from repeated litigation over the same dispute.

In News:

The Ministry of Women and Child Development has invited nominations for the Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar (PMRBP), India's highest civilian honour for children, recognising exceptional achievements in various fields.

About Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar (PMRBP)

• The Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar (PMRBP) is India's premier national award instituted to honourchildren between the ages of 5 and 18 years who have demonstrated exceptional courage, innovation, talent, resilience, leadership, or outstanding service to society.
• Introduced in 2019, the award seeks to recognise young achievers who have made remarkable contributions in diverse fields and inspire other children to pursue excellence and nation-building.
• The award is presented annually by the President of India in New Delhi on 26 December, observed as Veer Bal Diwas.

Veer Bal Diwas

Veer Bal Diwas is observed every year on 26 December to commemorate the supreme sacrifice of Sahibzada Zorawar Singh and Sahibzada Fateh Singh, the younger sons of the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, who displayed extraordinary courage and steadfastness in the face of persecution.

Award Categories

The PMRBP recognises outstanding achievements in six categories:

• Bravery
• Social Service
• Environment
• Sports
• Art and Culture
• Science and Technology

Eligibility and Selection

The award is open to children aged between 5 and 18 years who have demonstrated exceptional achievements or acts of courage with a lasting social impact.

Children may be nominated in more than one category, although each achievement is evaluated separately. While the award is generally not conferred posthumously, exceptional cases may be considered.

An Expert Committee evaluates the nominations based on the significance, originality, impact, and excellence of the achievements.

Award Components

The award comprises:

• A Medal
• A Certificate
• A Citation

Approximately 25 children are selected every year for their outstanding accomplishments.

Nodal Ministry

• Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD)

The Ministry administers the award and oversees the nomination and selection process in consultation with the Expert Committee.

Objectives

The Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar aims to:

• Recognise exceptional achievements of children across diverse fields.
• Encourage innovation, creativity, courage, and leadership among young citizens.
• Inspire children to contribute positively to society and nation-building.
• Promote a culture of excellence, social responsibility, and public service.

In News:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has discovered three 16th-century inions belonging to Vijayanagara king Sadasivaraya in the Seshachalam Forest of Tirupati district, Andhra Pradesh.

About the Discovery

• The newly discovered inions have been precisely dated to 31 July 1554 CE and are engraved in Telugu, Tamil, and Kannada, reflecting the linguistic diversity and administrative inclusiveness of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• The inions primarily record the religious activities of King Sadasivaraya, who visited Papavinasa on a pilgrimage and commissioned the construction of a Shiva temple and a monastery (Mutt) during his visit.

Key Findings

The inions throw light on several aspects of Vijayanagara administration and religious patronage:

• They record the construction of a Shiva temple and Mutt at Papavinasa under the patronage of King Sadasivaraya.
• They mention the assignment of tax revenues (Kaanika) and land grants from two villages to finance daily worship, food offerings (Naivedya), and temple maintenance at the GudimallamParasurameswara Temple.
• The inions also refer to SadasivaBasavanna Odeya, a disciple of LingannaVodaya of Bendekeri, and Peddayya, son of Chembhaperiya, who served as the composer and temple accountant.

These records provide valuable insights into the financial management and institutional support extended to temples during the Vijayanagara period.

Historical Significance of Gudimallam Temple

The inions reaffirm the importance of the GudimallamParasurameswara Temple, widely regarded as India's oldest surviving Shiva temple, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.

The discovery establishes that the shrine continued to receive direct royal patronage, land grants, and financial support under the Vijayanagara rulers despite the growing prominence of nearby pilgrimage centres such as Tirumala. It highlights the continuity of Shaivite worship and the preservation of ancient sacred sites during the medieval period.

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE)

The Vijayanagara Empire was one of the greatest empires of medieval South India. It was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama Dynasty on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. The empire served as a major political, cultural, and economic power for over three centuries.

The empire was ruled successively by four dynasties:

• Sangama
• Saluva
• Tuluva
• Aravidu

Its golden age was witnessed during the reign of Krishnadevaraya (Tuluva Dynasty), who is remembered for his military successes, efficient administration, literary contributions, and patronage of the Ashtadiggajas, the celebrated group of eight Telugu scholars. He also authored the famous Telugu work Amuktamalyada.

Administration

The Vijayanagara administration was characterised by the Nayankara (Amara-Nayaka) System, under which military chiefs were granted Amaram (land assignments) in return for maintaining troops, collecting revenue, and rendering military service to the king. This decentralised system played a crucial role in maintaining the empire's vast territorial control.

Art and Architecture

The empire marked the culmination of the Dravidian style of temple architecture. Important architectural features included:

• Massive Raya Gopurams
• Ornate monolithic pillars
• Spacious Kalyana Mandapas
• Intricately carved temple complexes

Prominent examples include the Vittalaswamy Temple and the Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Foreign Accounts

The prosperity and cosmopolitan nature of the empire have been documented by several foreign travellers and envoys, including:

• Ibn Battuta (Morocco)
• Nicolo de Conti (Italy)
• Abdur Razzak (Persia)
• Domingo Paes (Portugal)

Their accounts describe the empire's flourishing trade, urban planning, military strength, and immense wealth.

Decline

The empire suffered a decisive setback after the Battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) in 1565, where the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara army. Although the empire continued under the Aravidu Dynasty, it gradually declined, bringing an end to one of the most remarkable phases of South Indian history.

In News:

The Government of Venezuela has declared a nationwide State of Emergency after two powerful earthquakes of magnitude 7.2 and 7.5 struck off its north-central coast within a short interval. The rare seismic doublet caused extensive damage to infrastructure and significant loss of life.

What is a Seismic Doublet?

A Seismic Doublet (or Doublet Earthquake) refers to the occurrence of two earthquakes of nearly equal magnitude that strike close together in both time and location.

Unlike a typical mainshock-aftershock sequence, where the aftershocks are significantly weaker than the main earthquake, a seismic doublet involves two major earthquakes of comparable intensity. The second earthquake is not merely an aftershock but an independent large event triggered by stress transferred from the first rupture.

Mechanism

When the first earthquake occurs, it does not completely release the accumulated tectonic stress along a fault. Instead, part of this stress is rapidly transferred to a neighbouringfault segment or an asperity (a strongly locked patch of rock along a fault).

If the adjacent fault is already close to failure, the additional stress may trigger another major rupture within a short period, resulting in a seismic doublet.

Why is Venezuela Highly Earthquake-Prone?

Venezuela is situated along the active boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the South American Plate, making its northern region highly susceptible to earthquakes.

• The Caribbean Plate moves eastward relative to the South American Plate at a rate of approximately 20 mm per year.
• The movement is accommodated through a network of east-west trending strike-slip faults across northern Venezuela.
• These faults periodically accumulate stress due to friction and release it through powerful earthquakes.

Many earthquakes in Venezuela are shallow-focus earthquakes, meaning they originate close to the Earth's surface. As a result, seismic waves lose little energy before reaching the surface, leading to greater destruction.

What is a Strike-Slip Fault?

A strike-slip fault is a type of fault in which blocks of rock move horizontally past one another due to shear stress.

• The movement is predominantly lateral rather than vertical.
• It commonly occurs along transform plate boundaries.
• Sudden movement along these faults generates shallow and often destructive earthquakes.

Relevance to India

India is among the world's most earthquake-prone countries due to the ongoing convergence of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate.

The collision has created the Himalayan mountain system, where enormous tectonic stress continues to accumulate, making the region vulnerable to major earthquakes.

Areas falling under Seismic Zone V (Very High Risk Zone) include:

• Himalayan States
• North-Eastern India
• Parts of Gujarat
• Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Given the presence of highly stressed fault systems, earthquake doublets cannot be ruled out in tectonically active regions, highlighting the importance of continuous seismic monitoring, earthquake-resistant infrastructure, and disaster preparedness.

In News:

The Government of Venezuela has declared a nationwide State of Emergency after two powerful earthquakes of magnitude 7.2 and 7.5 struck off its north-central coast within a short interval. The rare seismic doublet caused extensive damage to infrastructure and significant loss of life.

What is a Seismic Doublet?

A Seismic Doublet (or Doublet Earthquake) refers to the occurrence of two earthquakes of nearly equal magnitude that strike close together in both time and location.

Unlike a typical mainshock-aftershock sequence, where the aftershocks are significantly weaker than the main earthquake, a seismic doublet involves two major earthquakes of comparable intensity. The second earthquake is not merely an aftershock but an independent large event triggered by stress transferred from the first rupture.

Mechanism

When the first earthquake occurs, it does not completely release the accumulated tectonic stress along a fault. Instead, part of this stress is rapidly transferred to a neighbouringfault segment or an asperity (a strongly locked patch of rock along a fault).

If the adjacent fault is already close to failure, the additional stress may trigger another major rupture within a short period, resulting in a seismic doublet.

Why is Venezuela Highly Earthquake-Prone?

Venezuela is situated along the active boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the South American Plate, making its northern region highly susceptible to earthquakes.

• The Caribbean Plate moves eastward relative to the South American Plate at a rate of approximately 20 mm per year.
• The movement is accommodated through a network of east-west trending strike-slip faults across northern Venezuela.
• These faults periodically accumulate stress due to friction and release it through powerful earthquakes.

Many earthquakes in Venezuela are shallow-focus earthquakes, meaning they originate close to the Earth's surface. As a result, seismic waves lose little energy before reaching the surface, leading to greater destruction.

What is a Strike-Slip Fault?

A strike-slip fault is a type of fault in which blocks of rock move horizontally past one another due to shear stress.

• The movement is predominantly lateral rather than vertical.
• It commonly occurs along transform plate boundaries.
• Sudden movement along these faults generates shallow and often destructive earthquakes.

Relevance to India

India is among the world's most earthquake-prone countries due to the ongoing convergence of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate.

The collision has created the Himalayan mountain system, where enormous tectonic stress continues to accumulate, making the region vulnerable to major earthquakes.

Areas falling under Seismic Zone V (Very High Risk Zone) include:

• Himalayan States
• North-Eastern India
• Parts of Gujarat
• Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Given the presence of highly stressed fault systems, earthquake doublets cannot be ruled out in tectonically active regions, highlighting the importance of continuous seismic monitoring, earthquake-resistant infrastructure, and disaster preparedness.

In News:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has recently handed over human skeletal remains excavated from the Harappan site of Rakhigarhi in Haryana to the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI) for detailed anthropological, bio-archaeological, and scientific research. The study is expected to provide valuable insights into the ancestry, health, lifestyle, and population history of the Indus Valley Civilization.

About the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI)

The Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI) is the premier government-funded institution dedicated to anthropological research in India. It is the only Central Government research organisation exclusively engaged in anthropological studies under the Ministry of Culture.

Established in 1945 under the leadership of Dr. S.C. Roy, a pioneering Indian anthropologist, AnSI was initially tasked with documenting and studying India's tribal and caste communities. Over the decades, its mandate has expanded considerably to encompass the biological, cultural, linguistic, and social diversity of the entire Indian population.

Headquarters: Kolkata, West Bengal.

Objectives

AnSI works towards understanding India's diverse human populations through scientific research and documentation. Its major objectives include:

• Conducting biological and cultural anthropological research on India's tribes and other communities.
• Examining, preserving, and analysing ancient and modern human skeletal remains.
• Documenting and conserving India's tribal arts, crafts, and cultural heritage.
• Providing training in anthropology and publishing research findings for academic and policy use.

Major Areas of Research

Over the years, AnSI has evolved into a multidisciplinary research institution. While its early work focused mainly on the ethnographic study of tribal societies—their social organisation, kinship systems, religious beliefs, and economic life—it now undertakes research across a much wider spectrum.

Its areas of study include biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, social anthropology, medical anthropology, linguistic anthropology, human genetics, archaeology, tribal studies, and bio-archaeology. It also studies rural and urban populations, marginalised communities, and the Indian diaspora to understand the country's evolving social landscape.

Organisational Structure

To facilitate region-specific research, AnSI operates through its headquarters in Kolkata and several regional centres located across the country, including Delhi, Lucknow, Shillong, and Pune.

The organisation brings together experts from multiple disciplines such as anthropology, archaeology, sociology, linguistics, and human biology, enabling comprehensive research on India's cultural and biological diversity.

Publications

AnSI disseminates its research through several scholarly publications, including:

• Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India
• Occasional Papers
• Monographs and technical research reports

In News:

The annual Ambubachi Mela, one of the largest and most significant religious gatherings in eastern India, commenced at the revered Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, Assam, attracting lakhs of devotees, ascetics, and Tantric practitioners from across India and abroad.

About Ambubachi Mela

Ambubachi Mela is an annual Hindu festival celebrated during the monsoon season, usually in June, at the Kamakhya Temple. The festival marks the annual menstruation of Goddess Kamakhya, symbolising the creative and regenerative powers of nature.

During this period, the temple remains closed for three days, as it is believed that the Goddess undergoes her annual menstrual cycle. The temple reopens on the fourth day after elaborate purification rituals, drawing large numbers of pilgrims seeking blessings.

The festival is deeply associated with fertility, womanhood, agricultural prosperity, and the onset of the monsoon. The word 'Ambubachi' literally means "water flowing,"symbolising both the rains and the fertility of the Earth.

Religious Significance

• Celebrates the divine feminine and the fertility of Mother Earth.
• Closely associated with the arrival of the southwest monsoon and the beginning of the agricultural season.
• Considered one of the most important festivals of Tantric Shaktism.
• Attracts Tantric practitioners, Aghori sadhus, ascetics, and devotees from across the country.
• Devotees receive the sacred Angodak (holy water) and Angabastra (cloth believed to have been sanctified during the Goddess's menstruation) as blessings after the temple reopens.

Kamakhya Temple

The Kamakhya Temple is one of the most revered shrines dedicated to Goddess Shakti and is regarded as one of the oldest and most sacred centres of Tantric worship in India.

It is believed to be one of the 51 Shakti Peethas, where the yoni (womb and generative organ) of Goddess Sati is said to have fallen according to Hindu mythology.

Location

• Situated atop Nilachal Hill in Guwahati, Assam.
• Overlooks the southern bank of the Brahmaputra River.

Key Features

• One of the foremost centres of Tantric Shaktism.
• Unlike many Hindu temples, the sanctum does not contain an idol; instead, worship is offered to a natural rock fissuresymbolising the divine feminine, continuously fed by an underground spring.
• Holds immense religious significance for both Shakta and Tantric traditions.

Temple Architecture

The Kamakhya Temple exhibits a distinctive architectural style known as the Nilachala Style, which blends:

• Traditional Nagara architecture.
• Saracenic (Mughal) architectural influences.

This unique fusion makes it one of the most distinctive temple structures in India.

Architectural Features

• The only temple in Assam with a fully developed ground plan.
• Comprises five principal chambers:
  • Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum)
  • Antarala (vestibule)
  • Jagamohan (assembly hall)
  • Bhogmandir (offering hall)
  • Natmandir (dance and music hall)
• Each chamber possesses a distinct superstructure:
  • The main shrine is crowned with a modified Saracenic dome.
  • The Antarala features a two-tiered roof.
  • The Bhogmandir has five domes resembling the main temple.
  • The Natmandir has a shell-shaped roof with an apsidal end, resembling traditional Assamese Namghars (prayer halls).

In News:

The Union Government has launched Nirbhay Chetna to sensitise over 17.5 lakh elected male representatives of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) on gender equality, women's safety, and gender-responsive governance across rural India.

About Nirbhay Chetna Initiative

• Nirbhay Chetna is a flagship gender-sensitisationprogramme launched under the broader Nirbhay Raho initiative. It is the first-of-its-kind national initiative implemented through the Nirbhaya Fund to engage elected male representatives in promoting women's safety and gender equality at the grassroots level.
• The initiative recognises that achieving gender-responsive governance requires the active participation of both women and men in local self-government institutions.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Panchayati Raj
• Objectives: The initiative aims to:
  • Promote gender-sensitive governance in Panchayati Raj Institutions.
  • Sensitise elected male representatives on women's rights, dignity, and safety.
  • Foster accountability and community leadership for preventing gender-based violence.
  • Encourage inclusive decision-making and equal participation of women in local governance.
  • Strengthen grassroots efforts towards creating safer and more equitable rural communities.
• Key Features
  • Implemented under the Nirbhaya Fund, dedicated to initiatives for women's safety and security.
  • Targets over 17.5 lakh elected male representatives across Panchayati Raj Institutions.
  • Focuses on behavioural change through awareness, dialogue, and leadership development.
  • Promotes collaboration among Panchayats, government agencies, and local communities to address gender issues.
  • Seeks to institutionalise gender-responsive practices in rural governance.

Capacity-Building Mechanism

A nationwide network of 28,500 Master Trainers is being developed at:

• State level
• District level
• Block level

These trainers will conduct structured awareness and training programmes to sensitise male elected representatives across the country.

Components of the Nirbhay Raho Initiative

1. Nirbhay Chetna

• Sensitises elected male representatives on:
  • Gender equality
  • Women's safety and security
  • Prevention of gender-based violence
  • Gender-responsive governance

2. Nirbhay Netri

Focuses on empowering elected women representatives through:

• Capacity building
• Leadership development
• Legal literacy and awareness
• Strengthening participation in Panchayati Raj Institutions

3. Nirbhay Drishti

Aims to enhance rural safety infrastructure by:

• Installing CCTV cameras at strategic public locations in Panchayats.
• Promoting technology-enabled surveillance to improve women's safety.
• Supporting safer public spaces in rural areas.

Expected Outcomes

The initiative seeks to:

• Build gender-sensitive leadership within Panchayati Raj Institutions.
• Improve the implementation of women-centric government schemes.
• Strengthen community ownership of women's safety initiatives.
• Encourage greater participation of women in local governance.
• Foster safer, inclusive, and equitable rural communities through behavioural and institutional change.

In News:

Growing global protests against Project Nimbus have reignited debates over the ethical use of Artificial Intelligence (AI), cloud computing, and the role of Big Tech companies in military and government operations. Student groups, technology employees, and human rights activists have questioned whether advanced AI tools supplied under the project are being used in the ongoing Israel–Gaza conflict.

About Project Nimbus

• Project Nimbus is a USD 1.2 billion cloud-computing agreement, announced in 2021, between the Israeli government and two global technology companies—Google Cloud Platform (GCP) and Amazon Web Services (AWS).
• Its primary objective is to modernize and digitize Israel's public-sector digital infrastructure by migrating government databases, applications, and computing systems to secure domestic cloud platforms.
• The project is designed to improve the efficiency, security, and scalability of government digital services while ensuring that sensitive government data remains within Israel.

Key Features

• Signed in 2021 with an estimated value of USD 1.2 billion.
• Jointly implemented by Google Cloud and Amazon Web Services (AWS).
• Provides cloud infrastructure for Israeli government ministries, public agencies, and defence-related institutions.
• Establishes localized cloud data centres within Israel to ensure data sovereignty.
• Includes long-term cloud storage, computing power, cybersecurity support, and AI-based analytical services.

Technological Capabilities

Project Nimbus provides a wide range of advanced cloud and Artificial Intelligence services, including:

• High-performance cloud computing.
• Large-scale data storage and management.
• Machine learning and AI model development.
• Facial detection and image recognition.
• Automated image categorization.
• Object detection and tracking.
• Speech recognition and language processing.
• Sentiment analysis and predictive analytics.

These technologies are generally classified as dual-use technologies, meaning they can serve both civilian and military purposes.

Sovereign Non-Restriction Clause

Leaked contract documents indicate that Project Nimbus contains a Sovereign Non-Restriction Clause, under which:

• Google and Amazon cannot suspend or deny cloud services to Israeli government entities due to external political pressure or internal corporate policy changes.
• Critical government operations remain insulated from service disruptions.
• Data processing, storage, and server administration are maintained within Israel to strengthen national control over government data.

Concerns and Controversies

Project Nimbus has attracted significant international criticism due to several concerns:

• Potential military use: Critics allege that AI-powered surveillance and image-analysis tools could support military operations and targeting in conflict zones.
• Human rights concerns: Activists argue that advanced surveillance capabilities may be used to monitor Palestinians in occupied territories.
• Lack of transparency: The exact deployment and end-use of AI services under the project remain largely undisclosed.
• Corporate ethics: Employees and civil society groups have accused Big Tech companies of indirectly facilitating geopolitical conflicts by providing foundational digital infrastructure.
• Dual-use dilemma: Technologies intended for civilian governance can also be adapted for intelligence gathering and military applications.

Google and Amazon's Position

Google and Amazon have consistently stated that:

• Project Nimbus is intended to provide commercial cloud services to government agencies.
• The contract is not designed for classified weapons systems or intelligence operations.
• Their services comply with contractual obligations and applicable laws.

In News:

The Government of India has highlighted the remarkable transformation of the North-Eastern Region (NER) over the last twelve years (2014–2026). Through sustained investments in infrastructure, connectivity, social development, clean energy, and governance, the region has witnessed a paradigm shift from being a geographically isolated frontier to becoming a strategic growth hub. Recognised as "Ashtalakshmi", the North-East is now central to India's Act East Policy and the vision of Viksit Bharat, serving as India's gateway to Southeast Asia.

Why is the North-East Called "Ashtalakshmi"?

The term Ashtalakshmi originates from Hindu tradition, where Goddess Lakshmi manifests in eight forms representing prosperity, abundance, and well-being. Similarly, India's North-East comprises eight states—Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura—each endowed with unique cultural, ecological, agricultural, and strategic strengths.

The Government uses this symbolism to project the region as a collective source of national prosperity. The terminology also reflects a strategic shift in policy—from viewing the North-East merely as a border region constrained by the "tyranny of distance" to recognising it as India's Gateway to ASEAN and an important pillar of regional integration.

Strategic Importance of the North-East

The North-East occupies a unique geopolitical position and plays a critical role in India's security, economy, and diplomacy.

Its importance stems from:

• Sharing international borders with Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, and Nepal, making it strategically significant for border management.
• Acting as India's land bridge to Southeast Asia under the Act East Policy.
• Possessing rich natural resources including hydropower, forests, biodiversity, bamboo, tea, spices, horticultural crops, and organic farming potential.
• Serving as a crucial region for India's Indo-Pacific strategy, regional connectivity, and cross-border trade.

Major Drivers of Transformation

1. Connectivity Revolution: Bridging the Geographic Divide

For decades, poor connectivity remained the biggest obstacle to the region's development. The past decade has witnessed unprecedented investments aimed at overcoming geographical isolation through integrated transport and digital infrastructure.

Road Connectivity

• Road infrastructure has expanded significantly, with the National Highway network increasing from 10,905 km in 2014 to over 16,200 km in 2026.
• Flagship programmes such as BharatmalaPariyojana and Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) have enhanced rural connectivity, improved market access, strengthened border infrastructure, and facilitated tourism and disaster response.

Railway Modernisation

• Rail connectivity has expanded through broad-gauge conversion, new railway lines, and extensive electrification.
• Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura have achieved 100% railway electrification, while Assam is close to full electrification. This transition has reduced dependence on diesel traction, improved operational efficiency, and promoted environmentally sustainable transportation.

Landmark Infrastructure Projects

Several iconic engineering projects have transformed connectivity across the region.

• Bogibeel Bridge (Assam): India's longest rail-cum-road bridge, significantly improving connectivity between Assam and Arunachal Pradesh while strengthening defence logistics.
• Noney Bridge (Manipur): The world's tallest railway pier bridge, forming part of the Jiribam–Imphal railway project.
• Sela Tunnel (Arunachal Pradesh): Provides all-weather access to Tawang and enhances military preparedness along the India-China border.

Air Connectivity

• The UDAN Scheme has substantially improved regional air connectivity. Operational airports increased from 9 in 2014 to 17 in 2026, making air travel more affordable and accessible while promoting tourism, trade, healthcare access, and emergency services.

Inland Waterways

• The number of National Waterways in the region has increased from one in 2014 to twenty in 2024, reviving the Brahmaputra and Barak river systems for cargo transportation, river tourism, and multimodal logistics.

Digital Connectivity

• Digital inclusion has expanded rapidly with over 6,350 Gram Panchayats becoming service-ready for high-speed broadband, facilitating e-governance, telemedicine, online education, digital banking, and entrepreneurship.

2. Strategic Integration through the Act East Policy

The Act East Policy has fundamentally altered the strategic significance of the North-East by positioning it as India's gateway to Southeast Asia.

• Major cross-border connectivity projects such as the India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway and the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project are expected to deepen India's economic integration with ASEAN by creating faster and more efficient land and maritime trade routes.
• The development of Integrated Check Posts (ICPs), particularly at Moreh (Manipur), has streamlined customs, immigration, and border trade. Simultaneously, Border Haats such as Kamalasagar and Bholaganj have revived traditional cross-border commerce while strengthening local livelihoods and people-to-people ties.

Together, these initiatives are transforming the North-East from India's peripheral frontier into an important regional trade and logistics corridor.

3. Policy Support and Institutional Framework

The transformation of the North-East has been supported by targeted policy interventions and dedicated institutional mechanisms.

PM-DevINE

The Prime Minister's Development Initiative for North East Region (PM-DevINE) is a 100% Centrally Funded Scheme aimed at financing high-impact infrastructure, social development, livelihood generation, and tourism projects.

North East Special Infrastructure Development Scheme (NESIDS)

Launched in 2017–18 and extended until March 2026, NESIDS supports infrastructure development through two components:

• NESIDS-Roads, focusing on connectivity and strategic road infrastructure.
• NESIDS-Other Than Roads Infrastructure (OTRI), supporting projects related to healthcare, education, power, drinking water, bridges, and public infrastructure.

North Eastern Council (NEC)

The North Eastern Council continues to function as the region's apex planning body by promoting bamboo-based industries, tourism, entrepreneurship, livelihood generation, and regional planning.

Dedicated Budgetary Support

Recognising the strategic importance of the region, all non-exempted Central Ministries are mandated to allocate at least 10% of their annual budget for the development of the North-East under the guiding principle of "Act East, Act Fast, Act First."

4. Energy Security and Green Growth

The North-East is central to India's renewable energy ambitions due to its vast hydropower and natural gas resources.

• Major projects include the 2,880 MW Dibang Multipurpose Project in Arunachal Pradesh, which will become India's tallest dam, and the 2,000 MW Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project located on the Assam–Arunachal Pradesh border. These projects are expected to improve energy security, flood moderation, irrigation, and regional development.
• Complementing hydropower development is the 1,656 km North East Gas Grid, which connects all eight states with the national gas network. The project includes Asia's longest underwater hydrocarbon pipeline beneath the Brahmaputra River, enabling cleaner energy access while promoting industrial growth.

5. Human Development and Social Infrastructure

Alongside infrastructure, significant investments have been made in improving quality of life and human development.

• Under the Jal Jeevan Mission, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram have achieved 100% Functional Household Tap Water Connections, while all eight states have attained Open Defecation Free (ODF) status.
• Housing infrastructure has expanded through Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), under which over 31 lakh houses have been constructed with integrated access to electricity, LPG, sanitation, and drinking water.
• Healthcare infrastructure has improved considerably through the operationalisation of AIIMS Guwahati, approval of 12 new medical colleges, and expansion of tertiary healthcare facilities.
• Educational opportunities have also expanded with the establishment of IITs, NITs, and Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS), improving access to quality education in remote areas.

6. Agricultural Diversification and Rural Prosperity

The North-East is gradually transitioning from subsistence agriculture to a high-value, market-oriented economy.

Fisheries and Livestock

Inland fish production has increased by 68% over the last decade, with Assam contributing nearly 70% of regional production. This growth has been supported by the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana, distribution of 3,823 Kisan Credit Cards, and establishment of 501 Fish Farmer Producer Organisations (FFPOs).

Milk and egg production have also witnessed steady growth, supported by the establishment of the region's first Cattle IVF Laboratory in Guwahati for genetic improvement.

Organic Farming and GI Products

The Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER) has integrated over 2.36 lakh hectares under certified organic farming. The region also possesses 89 Geographical Indication (GI)-tagged products, including Lakadong Turmeric, Naga King Chilli, Muga Silk, Chak-Hao Black Rice, Queen Pineapple, and Sikkim Large Cardamom, enhancing export potential and farmers' incomes.

Agarwood Economy

The North-East hosts nearly 90% of India's 150 million agarwood trees, with Tripura alone possessing an estimated market potential of ?2,000 crore, making agarwood a promising export commodity.

Brand North East

The Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (MDoNER) has launched the Brand North East initiative to develop state-specific value chains through flagship missions such as the Kiwi Mission (Arunachal Pradesh), Coffee Mission (Nagaland), Ginger Mission (Mizoram), Queen Pineapple Mission (Tripura), Muga Silk Mission (Assam), Organic Food Mission (Sikkim), and Lakadong Turmeric Mission (Meghalaya). The initiative aims to transform the region into a globally competitive, export-oriented economy.

In News:

An ammonia gas leak at a seafood processing and export unit in Tiruvallur district, Tamil Nadu, affected several people, highlighting concerns regarding industrial safety and hazardous chemical handling.

About Ammonia

Ammonia (NH?) is a colourless, pungent-smelling gas composed of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. It is an important industrial chemical and a naturally occurring compound in the environment.

Ammonia is highly soluble in water, forming aqueous (liquid) ammonia. When exposed to air, liquid ammonia rapidly vaporizes back into a gas.

Occurrence

Ammonia occurs naturally in:

• The nitrogen cycle, where it is produced by soil microorganisms.
• The decomposition of plants, animals, and organic matter.
• Small quantities within the human body as a product of normal metabolic processes.

Industrial Production

Commercial ammonia is primarily manufactured through the Haber–Bosch Process, in which nitrogen (N?) from air reacts with hydrogen (H?) under high temperature and pressure in the presence of an iron catalyst.

Uses

Ammonia has diverse industrial applications:

• Agriculture: Primary raw material for nitrogenous fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and urea.
• Refrigeration: Widely used as an industrial refrigerant, especially in cold storage and food processing industries.
• Water Treatment: Used as a purifier and pH regulator.
• Chemical Industry: Manufacture of plastics, explosives, synthetic fibres, dyes, pharmaceuticals, and cleaning agents.
• Food Industry: Used in refrigeration systems for seafood and food storage facilities.

Health Effects

Exposure to high concentrations of ammonia can cause:

• Irritation of the eyes, skin, nose, and throat.
• Coughing, breathing difficulty, and lung irritation.
• Chemical burns upon prolonged exposure.
• Severe exposure may lead to respiratory distress and pulmonary damage.

In News:

Recent studies have shown that Biochar can increase crop productivity by 10–30% and improve soil water-holding capacity by 10–25%, particularly in nutrient-deficient and semi-arid soils, highlighting its potential for sustainable agriculture and carbon sequestration.

What is Biochar?

Biochar is a carbon-rich, porous material produced by heating biomass or agricultural residues under low-oxygen (oxygen-limited) conditions, a process known as pyrolysis.

It is generally prepared by heating crop residues at 400°C–600°C in a kiln or similar structure in the absence of oxygen, converting agricultural waste into a stable form of carbon while minimizing emissions.

Key Characteristics

• Produced through pyrolysis (low or no oxygen).
• Derived from agricultural residues, forestry waste, and other biomass.
• Highly porous with a large surface area.
• Rich in stable carbon, making it resistant to decomposition.
• Can retain carbon in soil for 100–1,000 years, making it an effective long-term carbon sink.

Applications of Biochar

1. Agriculture: Biochar improves soil fertility, enhances water retention, increases nutrient availability, promotes beneficial microbial activity, and improves soil structure. It is particularly effective in rainfed, semi-arid, and nutrient-poor soils, leading to higher crop productivity.

2. Climate Change Mitigation: By storing stable carbon in soils for centuries, biochar serves as a carbon sequestration technology, reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide and supporting climate change mitigation.

3. Industrial Applications: Modified biochar can adsorb carbon dioxide (CO?) from industrial exhaust gases and is being explored for carbon capture applications, although its efficiency is currently lower than conventional carbon capture technologies.

4. Construction Sector: Biochar can be incorporated into construction materials such as concrete and bricks, reducing their carbon footprint while acting as a stable carbon sink.

5. Wastewater Treatment: Due to its high porosity and adsorption capacity, biochar can remove pollutants, heavy metals, dyes, and organic contaminants from wastewater, providing a low-cost treatment option.

Advantages

• Converts agricultural waste into a value-added product.
• Reduces crop residue burning and associated air pollution.
• Improves crop yield by 10–30%.
• Enhances soil water-holding capacity by 10–25%.
• Supports soil biodiversity and microbial activity.
• Sequesters carbon for 100–1,000 years.
• Promotes sustainable and climate-resilient agriculture.

In News:

Bengaluru-based Sarvam AI became India's first dedicated full-stack Artificial Intelligence (AI) startup to achieve unicorn status (valuation exceeding USD 1 billion), marking a major milestone for India's deep-tech ecosystem and indigenous AI capabilities.

What is a Unicorn?

• A Unicorn is a privately held startup valued at more than USD 1 billion.
• As of June 2026, India has 131 unicorns, making it the third-largest unicorn ecosystem globally after the United States and China.
• Recent unicorns such as Sarvam AI, Neysa, Skyroot, KreditBee, and Porter reflect India's growing strength in deep-tech sectors, particularly Artificial Intelligence and Space Technology.

About Sarvam AI

Sarvam AI is an Indian AI startup focused on building a sovereign AI ecosystem, aiming to reduce India's dependence on foreign AI platforms and develop indigenous AI technologies suited to Indian languages and use cases.

Key Initiatives

1. India's Indigenous Large Language Model (LLM)

Under the IndiaAI Mission, Sarvam AI has been selected to develop India's first indigenous Large Language Model (LLM).

The company is developing three models:

• Sarvam-Large – Advanced reasoning and complex AI tasks.
• Sarvam-Small – Optimized for real-time applications.
• Sarvam-Edge – Designed for on-device AI applications.

These models are expected to scale up to 70 billion parameters.

2. Frontier AI Models

At the IndiaAI Impact Summit 2026, Sarvam AI introduced:

• Sarvam-30B
  • 30-billion parameter model.
  • Optimized for conversational AI.
  • 32,000-token context window.
• Sarvam-105B
  • 105-billion parameter model.
  • Designed for advanced reasoning and multi-step problem-solving.
  • 128,000-token context window.

3. Enterprise AI Platforms

• Sarvam Samvaad
  • Enterprise conversational AI platform.
  • Integrates with organizational data and business tools to generate insights and automate workflows.
• Sarvam Dub
  • AI-powered multilingual dubbing platform.
  • Supports zero-shot voice cloning and cross-lingual speech generation.

4. Population-Scale AI Applications

Sarvam AI developed "Vikram", a multilingual AI chatbot named after Vikram Sarabhai.

Its AI voice agents have been deployed by the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare to collect high-quality agricultural data from approximately 17 million farmers, demonstrating AI applications at population scale.

In News:

On International Sickle Cell Day (19 June) 2026, the President of India reaffirmed the country's commitment to eliminate Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) by 2047 under the National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission (NSCEM).

International Sickle Cell Day

• International Sickle Cell Day is observed annually on 19 June to raise awareness about Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) and promote early diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and equitable healthcare access.
• The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) designated 19 June as International Sickle Cell Day through a resolution adopted on 22 December 2008, recognizing SCD as a major global public health challenge and one of the world's most significant inherited genetic disorders.
• Theme (2026):"Closing the Survival Gap: Equity in Sickle Cell Disease."

What is Sickle Cell Disease (SCD)?

Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is a hereditary genetic blood disorder caused by a mutation in the HBB (beta-globin) gene, resulting in the production of abnormal haemoglobin (Haemoglobin S). Instead of their normal biconcave shape, red blood cells become rigid, sticky, and sickle (crescent)-shaped, impairing blood flow and oxygen delivery.

The disease follows an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern, meaning an individual develops SCD only after inheriting two defective genes (one from each parent). Individuals carrying only one mutated gene possess the Sickle Cell Trait and are generally asymptomatic but can transmit the gene to their offspring.

Health Impact

Abnormally shaped red blood cells obstruct small blood vessels, leading to vaso-occlusive crises, severe pain episodes, chronic anaemia, organ damage, recurrent infections due to splenic dysfunction, and reduced life expectancy. Symptoms generally begin at 5–6 months of age as fetal haemoglobin declines.

Treatment

Management focuses on reducing complications through:

• Hydroxyurea therapy (increases fetal haemoglobin production).
• Pain management and adequate hydration.
• Blood transfusions for severe complications.
• Vaccination and antibiotics to prevent infections.

National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission (NSCEM)

Launched in 2023, the National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission aims to eliminate Sickle Cell Disease as a public health problem in India by 2047, with a special focus on tribal populations, where disease prevalence is highest.

The Mission is implemented jointly by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs under the National Health Mission (NHM) across 17 high-focus States.

Key Features

• Mission period: 2023–2026 (screening phase).
• Screening target: Approximately 7 crore individuals aged 0–40 years.
• Focus areas include:
  • Universal screening and early diagnosis.
  • Genetic counselling.
  • Timely treatment and follow-up.
  • Public awareness and prevention.
  • Strengthening healthcare infrastructure.

In News:

The Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) launched the Green Hydrogen Certification Portal of India (GHCI) during a national workshop on the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM). The portal will facilitate transparent certification and regulatory compliance under the Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme of India (GHCI Scheme).

Green Hydrogen Certification Portal (GHCI)

The Green Hydrogen Certification Portal is a digital platform developed by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) to implement the Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme of India.

The portal aims to:

• Ensure transparent certification of Green Hydrogen.
• Facilitate regulatory compliance for producers.
• Standardize certification to build domestic and international market confidence.
• Promote traceability and credibility of India's green hydrogen ecosystem.

National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM)

Launched in January 2023, the National Green Hydrogen Mission seeks to establish India as a global hub for the production, utilization, and export of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives. The mission aims to reduce dependence on fossil fuels, strengthen energy security, promote indigenous manufacturing, and accelerate India's transition towards a low-carbon economy.

Three Pillars of the Mission

The mission is built around three strategic pillars:

• Demand Creation: Development of domestic and export markets for green hydrogen.
• Supply-side Incentives: Incentives for green hydrogen production and electrolyser manufacturing.
• Enabling Ecosystem: Development of infrastructure, R&D, standards, certification, and supportive policy frameworks.

Targets by 2030

Major Components

Key initiatives under the mission include:

• Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition (SIGHT) Programme
• Incentives for electrolyser manufacturing and hydrogen production
• Green Hydrogen Certification Framework
• Research & Development (R&D) Roadmap
• Development of standards, testing and certification infrastructure
• Creation of hydrogen hubs and supporting infrastructure

State-Level Progress

To support implementation:

• 6 States have notified dedicated Green Hydrogen Policies.
• 7 States have incorporated hydrogen into existing energy/industrial policies.
• 4 States are in the process of formulating dedicated policies.

In News:

The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has won the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Prizes 2026 under Action Line C6 – Enabling Environment for its flagship Samriddh Gram initiative, recognising India's efforts in promoting inclusive rural digital transformation.

What is Samriddh Gram?

Samriddh Gram is a flagship rural digital transformation initiative of the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) built on the BharatNet network. It adopts a "phygital" (physical digital) service delivery model that combines robust digital infrastructure with on-ground service centres to improve access to essential public and commercial services in rural areas.

The initiative seeks to transform villages into digitally empowered communities by integrating connectivity, technology and assisted service delivery.

Objectives

The primary objective of Samriddh Gram is to bridge the rural digital divide by providing seamless access to education, healthcare, agriculture, financial services, e-governance and entrepreneurship opportunities through a unified digital ecosystem.

The initiative also supports the broader goals of Digital India, inclusive growth and last-mile service delivery.

Key Features

At the core of the programme are Samriddhi Kendras, which function as village-level one-stop service centres delivering integrated phygital services. These centres combine reliable telecom connectivity, digital platforms and assisted physical support to ensure that citizens can easily access government and private services.

The initiative provides a comprehensive range of services across multiple sectors:

• Education & Skill Development: Smart classrooms, AR/VR-enabled learning and digital skill training aligned with government programmes.
• Agriculture: IoT-based soil testing, drone-assisted farming and smart irrigation solutions.
• Healthcare: Telemedicine, Health ATMs and emergency healthcare support.
• e-Governance: Assisted access to government services, documentation and grievance redressal.
• E-Commerce: Integration with the Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) and digital marketplaces to promote rural entrepreneurship.
• Financial Inclusion: Digital banking services and digital payment facilities.

The digital backbone of the programme is provided through BharatNetFibre-to-the-Home (FTTH) connectivity, supported by Village Area Networks (VANs) and public Wi-Fi hotspots.

In News:

The Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has notified Navi Mumbai International Airport as an authorised entry point for the import of drugs into India. The move aims to strengthen pharmaceutical logistics, improve supply chain efficiency and facilitate trade while ensuring regulatory oversight.

What is the Recent Notification?

The notification has been issued under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940, after consultation with the Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB).

To operationalise the decision, the Central Government amended Rule 43A of the Drugs Rules, 1945, adding Navi Mumbai International Airport to the list of approved locations through which pharmaceutical products can be imported into India.

With this amendment, the number of authorisedroad, rail, sea and air entry points for drug imports has increased to 42.

Key Features

The inclusion of Navi Mumbai Airport is expected to improve the movement of imported pharmaceutical consignments by providing an additional logistics gateway. It will reduce congestion at existing entry points, diversify import routes and enhance supply-chain resilience.

The new facility is expected to facilitate quicker customs clearance, improve transportation efficiency and strengthen pharmaceutical distribution networks across western India.

Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB)

The Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) is a statutory body constituted under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940.

It serves as the highest technical advisory body on matters relating to the regulation of drugs and cosmetics in India. The Board advises the Central and State Governments on technical issues concerning the administration and implementation of the Act and the Rules framed thereunder.

In News:

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully conducted the fifth Integrated Main Parachute Airdrop Test (IMAT-05) for the Gaganyaan Mission at the Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE) drop zone in Sheopur, Madhya Pradesh. The test marks another significant milestone in validating the crew module's safe recovery system ahead of the upcoming uncrewed G1 mission.

What is IMAT-05?

The Integrated Main Parachute Airdrop Test (IMAT-05) is a high-altitude structural qualification test designed to validate the main parachute system of the Gaganyaan Crew Module under the most demanding re-entry conditions. It simulates the extreme aerodynamic forces experienced by the crew capsule during atmospheric re-entry before its splashdown in the sea.

The test was jointly planned and executed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE), a laboratory under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

Objective

The primary objective of IMAT-05 was to verify the structural integrity, deployment sequence, aerodynamic performance and safety margins of the main parachute system under maximum design loads expected during the Gaganyaan G1 uncrewed demonstration mission.

Key Features of the Test

The test involved dropping a dummy payload, equivalent in mass to the actual crew module, from an altitude of 2.5 km using an Indian Air Force IL-76 heavy transport aircraft.

The Gaganyaan Crew Module uses an integrated 10-parachute deceleration system, designed to gradually reduce the capsule's velocity before ocean landing.

The system comprises:

• 2 Apex Cover Separation Parachutes to jettison the protective cover over the parachute compartment.
• 2 Drogue Parachutes to stabilize the descending capsule and reduce its initial speed.
• 3 Pilot Parachutes to extract the main parachutes from the capsule.
• 3 Main Parachutes that sequentially deploy to reduce the crew module to a safe splashdown velocity.

A major highlight of IMAT-05 was the successful validation of the disreefing sequence, a controlled deployment mechanism in which the main parachutes inflate in stages rather than opening instantaneously. This significantly reduces structural stress on the parachute canopy and suspension lines under extreme aerodynamic loads.

In News:

Researchers from IIT Guwahati have demonstrated that cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can effectively remove lead from contaminated water, highlighting their potential as an eco-friendly and cost-effective solution for heavy metal remediation.

What are Cyanobacteria?

Cyanobacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae, are microscopic photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms found naturally in aquatic environments. They are among the oldest known life forms on Earth, with fossil records dating back more than 3.5 billion years, and are believed to have played a crucial role in oxygenating the Earth's atmosphere.

These organisms occur in freshwater, brackish water and marine ecosystems, where they contribute significantly to primary productivity.

Characteristics of Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria are autotrophic organisms, producing their own food through photosynthesis using sunlight. Unlike algae, they possess a prokaryotic cell structure, lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

They reproduce asexually, primarily through transverse binary fission. While some species occur as solitary cells, others form colonies or filamentous structures.

Under warm, nutrient-rich conditions, cyanobacteria multiply rapidly and form cyanobacterial blooms, particularly in slow-moving water bodies enriched with nutrients from agricultural runoff or sewage. Certain species produce cyanotoxins, which can adversely affect aquatic ecosystems, livestock and human health.

Role in Water Purification

The recent study demonstrates that cyanobacteria can absorb and accumulate lead, a toxic heavy metal, from contaminated water through the process of biosorption. This makes them promising candidates for bioremediation, an environmentally sustainable approach that uses living organisms to remove pollutants from the environment.

Compared to conventional chemical treatment methods, cyanobacteria-based remediation is relatively inexpensive, eco-friendly and suitable for treating industrial wastewater contaminated with heavy metals.

In News:

During the India–Indonesia Bilateral Summit in Jakarta, the two countries signed a landmark defence agreement for the supply of the indigenously developed Astra Mk 1 Beyond-Visual-Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM). The deal marks a significant milestone in India's growing defence exports and strengthens strategic defence cooperation between the two countries.

What is the Astra Mk 1 Missile?

The Astra Mk 1 is India's first indigenously developed Beyond-Visual-Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM), designed to engage and destroy highly manoeuvrable enemy aircraft before they enter visual combat range. Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) in partnership with Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL), the missile significantly enhances the long-range air combat capability of the Indian Air Force.

Its primary objective is to provide fighter aircraft with stand-off strike superiority, enabling pilots to neutralize hostile aerial targets from safe distances.

Key Features

• The Astra Mk 1 is an all-weather, supersonic missile capable of intercepting highly agile aircraft at speeds of up to Mach 4.5.
• It operates across a wide altitude envelope ranging from sea level to 20 km and has an effective engagement range of approximately 80–110 km, depending on launch conditions.
• The missile employs a three-stage guidance system for enhanced accuracy. During the initial phase, it navigates using an inertial navigation system. In the mid-course phase, it receives continuous radio frequency updates from the launch aircraft, enabling course corrections against manoeuvring targets. In the terminal phase, an Active Radio Frequency (RF) seeker autonomously locks onto the target, maintaining effectiveness even in electronic warfare environments.
• Powered by a single-pulse smokeless solid-fuel rocket motor, Astra leaves minimal visible smoke, thereby reducing the chances of revealing the launch aircraft's position.

Platform Integration

The Astra Mk 1 is fully operational on the Sukhoi Su-30 MKI fleet of the Indian Air Force. Integration is currently underway with India's indigenous LCA Tejas Mk 1A and the Rafale fighter aircraft, expanding its operational versatility across multiple combat platforms.

Evolution of the Astra Missile Family

Building upon the success of the Mk 1, DRDO is developing advanced variants to further strengthen India's aerial strike capability.

The Astra Mk 2 is expected to have an engagement range of around 200 km and will employ a dual-pulse solid rocket motor, enabling the missile to regain energy during the terminal phase and improve interception capability against highly manoeuvrable targets.

The Astra Mk 3, also known as Gandiva, is currently under development and will incorporate Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet (SFDR) technology. This propulsion system will provide sustained thrust throughout flight, extending the missile's interception range to over 350 km, placing it among the world's longest-range air-to-air missiles.

In News:

Uttarakhand has been declared India's sixth fully literate State under the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 through the ULLAS (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society)programme. The achievement reflects India's continued efforts to promote adult literacy and lifelong learning.

About ULLAS Programme

ULLAS (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society), also known as the Nav Bharat SaakshartaKaryakram (New India Literacy Programme), is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched by the Ministry of Education. It aligns with the vision of NEP 2020 by transforming adult education into a lifelong learning movement.

Implemented during 2022–2027, the programme aims to educate non-literate adults aged 15 years and above who could not complete formal schooling. Moving beyond conventional literacy, ULLAS focuses on developing functional literacy, numeracy and essential life skills required for active participation in society.

Objectives

The programme seeks to provide Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) to 5 crore adult learners over five years, targeting 1 crore learners annually through the Online Teaching, Learning and Assessment System (OTLAS).

It also promotes community participation and volunteerism, encouraging citizens to contribute towards building a literate society while fostering the spirit of Kartavya Bodh (sense of civic duty).

Key Features

ULLAS provides learning through both physical and digital modes. Learners can access educational content in regional languages through the DIKSHA Portal, the ULLAS Mobile App, and other digital platforms.

The programme establishes Samajik Chetna Kendras (Social Awareness Centres) by utilizing schools, village libraries and Panchayat buildings as community learning centres.

To ensure inclusivity, learning materials are available in 27 languages and local dialects, enabling wider participation across the country.

Progress is assessed through the Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT), conducted twice annually. Successful learners receive literacy certificates jointly issued by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and the Department of School Education and Literacy (DoSEL).

The programme also connects newly literate adults with Jan Shikshan Sansthans (JSS) to facilitate vocational training and improve local employment opportunities.

Components of ULLAS

ULLAS is built around five major components:

• Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) to develop reading, writing and numeracy skills.
• Critical Life Skills, including digital literacy, financial literacy, legal awareness, healthcare, family welfare and childcare.
• Basic Education, providing equivalency with formal school education.
• Vocational Skills to improve employability and livelihood opportunities.
• Continuing Education, covering subjects such as arts, science, technology, culture, sports and lifelong learning.

States/UTs Achieving 95% or More Literacy under ULLAS

As of 2026, the States and Union Territories declared fully literate under ULLAS include:

• Ladakh (UT) – 2024
• Mizoram – 2025
• Goa – 2025
• Tripura – 2025
• Himachal Pradesh – 2025
• Chandigarh (UT) – 2025
• Andaman & Nicobar Islands (UT) – 2026
• Sikkim – 2026
• Uttarakhand – 2026