In News:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has recently unearthed one of the first known Neolithic rock grooves in Kanniyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, specifically near Boothapandi village. These grooves—estimated to be around 4,000 years old—were likely created by Neolithic people to sharpen tools and weapons used for hunting, agriculture, and digging.

The discovery was made during a field study conducted by K. Hari Gopalakrishnan, ASI Officer (Tirunelveli &Kanniyakumari), and M. Faisal of the Sembavalam Research Centre. The grooves vary in size:

• Length: 8 cm to 15 cm
• Width: 3 cm to 4 cm

Such grooves have also been previously documented in Krishnagiri, Tiruvannamalai, and Villupuram districts of Tamil Nadu. The find strongly suggests the presence of Neolithic human activity in southernmost India and adds a significant layer to our understanding of prehistoric settlements in the region.

Neolithic Age

The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) marks the final stage of prehistoric human evolution before the emergence of metal tools. Beginning around 10,000 BCE, it coincides with the Holocene Epoch and follows the Paleolithic Age (chipped-stone tools) and precedes the Bronze Age.

Key Features of the Neolithic Age

• Lifestyle Shift: Transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture and animal domestication.
• Permanent Settlements: Emergence of village communities with mud-and-reed houses, both rectangular and circular in design.
• Toolmaking: Development of polished and ground stone tools.
• Crafts and Culture: Rise of pottery, weaving, alcohol production, and early architecture.
• Burial Practices: Use of status objects (e.g., jade, pottery) in burials indicates belief in afterlife and emerging social hierarchies.
• By the end of the Neolithic era, copper metallurgy began, marking the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age. Eventually, bronze tools replaced stone ones, signaling the end of the Stone Age and the dawn of early civilizations.

Major Neolithic Sites in India

• Burzahom – Kashmir
• Chirand (Chiron) – Bihar
• Uttarapalli – Andhra Pradesh
• Edakkal Caves – Kerala
• Boothapandi (newly identified) – Tamil Nadu

In News:

On the 300th birth anniversary of Maharani Ahilyabai Holkar, the Prime Minister will participate in the Mahila Sashaktikaran Maha Sammelan in Bhopal to honour her enduring legacy.

Historical Background

• Born: 31 May 1725
• Ruled: Malwa region (1767–1795) as part of the Maratha Confederacy
• Dynasty: Holkar
• Capital: Maheshwar (now in Madhya Pradesh)

Initially serving as a regent, Ahilyabai Holkar became the sovereign ruler after her husband and father-in-law’s deaths. Her rule is widely regarded as the golden age of the Holkar dynasty.

Governance and Administrative Reforms

• Ahilyabai was known for her equitable justice system, exemplified by the sentencing of her own son for a capital crime.
• She abolished discriminatory practices, such as the law confiscating property from childless widows.
• Courts for dispute resolution were established, and she remained accessible to the public, holding daily audiences.
• She broke gender norms by not observing purdah, a rare move for female rulers of the time.

Military Leadership

• Trained under Malhar Rao Holkar, she led her forces in battle.
• Appointed Tukoji Rao Holkar (Malhar Rao’s adopted son) as army commander.
• In 1792, she engaged a French officer, Chevalier Dudrenec, to modernize her army by establishing four battalions.

Cultural and Architectural Contributions

• A patron of literature and arts, she invited scholars like Moropant, Ananta Gandhi, and Khushali Ram to her court.
• Promoted craft and industry, notably founding the Maheshwar textile industry—famous today for Maheshwari sarees.
• Commissioned the construction and restoration of hundreds of Hindu temples and dharamshalas across India.
• Her most iconic act was the renovation of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi in 1780.
• Also contributed to infrastructure development, including roads, wells, forts, and rest houses.

Titles and Recognition

• Referred to as ‘Punyashlok’, meaning one as pure as sacred chants.
• British historian John Keay called her the ‘Philosopher Queen’.

Demise and Succession

Ahilyabai passed away on 13 August 1795 at the age of 70. She was succeeded by Tukoji Rao Holkar, who later abdicated in favour of Jaswant Rao Holkar. Jaswant Rao remained the last Holkar to rule independently until 1804.

In News:

The Haryana Government has declared Mitathal and Tighrana, two historically significant Harappan civilisation sites in Bhiwani district, as protected archaeological sites under the Haryana Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1964.

Location and Legal Status

• Both sites are located in Mitathal and Tighrana villages of Bhiwani district, Haryana.
• The notification was issued on March 13, 2025, designating a 10-acre area at Mitathal for protection.
• The Heritage and Tourism Department will ensure preservation through site fencing and deployment of guards.

Mitathal Site: Key Highlights

• Period: Dates to the Copper-Bronze Age, roughly 3rd to 2nd millennium BCE.
• Archaeological Finds:
  • Well-baked red pottery with black painted motifs like pipal leaves and fish scales.
  • Beads, copper tools, bangles, terracotta, and bone artefacts.
• Historical Timeline:
  • First identified in 1913 through Samudragupta coins.
  • Systematic excavations began in 1965–68 and continued post-2016 by the Central University of Haryana.
• Cultural Features:
  • Reflects urban planning and craftsmanship typical of the Harappan Civilization.

Tighrana Site: Cultural Significance

• Chronology: Rich in pre-Harappan, Harappan, and post-Harappan layers.
• Inhabitants: Associated with Sothian culture – early Chalcolithic farming communities (~2400 BCE).
• Settlement Traits:
  • Mud-brick houses, some possibly fortified.
  • Use of bichrome wheel-made pottery (black and white designs).
• Artefacts:Green carnelian bangles, beads, and tools suggest a thriving bead and jewellery industry.

Archaeological and Cultural Importance

• Continuity of Settlement: Offers insight into continuous human occupation from Pre-Siswal to Post-Harappan periods.
• Socio-economic Insights:Demonstrates early agricultural practices, urban planning, and craft traditions in the Indo-Gangetic divide.

Background: Harappan Civilization

• Also known as the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC); flourished around 2500 BCE.
• One of the world’s oldest urban civilizations, alongside Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.
• Classified as Bronze Age due to artefacts made from copper-based alloys.
• Key excavations:
  • Harappa (1921–22) by Daya Ram Sahni.
  • Mohenjo-daro (1922) by R.D. Banerji, under supervision of Sir John Marshall (ASI).

In News:

The Lok Sabha recently approved a bill to establish the Tribhuvan Sahkari University in Anand, Gujarat, named in honour of TribhuvandasKishibhai Patel, a seminal figure in India’s cooperative movement and a founding architect behind Amul.

Who was Tribhuvandas Patel?

• Born in 1903 in a farming family in Gujarat, Tribhuvandas Patel was an Indian freedom fighter, lawyer, and social reformer.
• A dedicated follower of Mahatma Gandhi, he actively participated in the civil disobedience movement, anti-untouchability campaigns, and rural development initiatives.
• He was first arrested during the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 at Nasik and later in Visapur, where he resolved to commit his life to public service.
• Between 1948 and 1983, he served as the President of Harijan Sevak Sangh, an organisation founded by Gandhi to uplift marginalized communities.

Role in India's Cooperative Movement

• In 1946, with encouragement from Morarji Desai and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Tribhuvandas spearheaded the formation of the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union Ltd. (KDCMPUL) to counter exploitative practices by private dairies such as Polson Dairy.
• His strategy began with organizing village-level milk cooperatives, where membership was inclusive, cutting across caste, class, and religion.
• Recognizing the need for professional management, he brought in Dr. VergheseKurien, who later led India’s White Revolution.

Institution Building and Legacy

Tribhuvandas Patel played a pivotal role in laying the foundations of several key institutions that transformed India’s dairy sector:

• Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF)
• National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
• Institute of Rural Management, Anand (IRMA)

His lifelong efforts significantly empowered rural milk producers and contributed to India’s emergence as a dairy powerhouse.

Recognitions and Awards

• Ramon Magsaysay Award (1963) for Community Leadership
• Padma Bhushan (1964) from the Government of India for his services to society

In News:

The Vice-President of India recently inaugurated the statues of Acharya Charaka and Sage Sushruta at Raj Bhavan, Goa, to honour India's ancient medical heritage rooted in Ayurveda and surgery.

Acharya Charaka – Father of Indian Medicine

• Period: Circa 100 BCE – 200 CE
• Region: Associated with Taxila, under the Kushan emperor Kanishka.
• Key Contribution:
  • Originally based on the Agnivesha Samhita, later revised and compiled by Charaka.
  • Focused on internal medicine (Kayachikitsa).
  • Discussed physiology, disease pathology, diagnosis, and therapeutic techniques.
  • Introduced the concept of three doshas: Vata, Pitta, Kapha—the basis for diagnosis and treatment in Ayurveda.
  • Provided early insights into embryology (Garbha Vigyan) and preventive healthcare.
  • Stressed medical ethics, such as confidentiality, non-maleficence, and the moral duties of a physician.
  • Emphasized the importance of diet, lifestyle, and environmental factors in health.
  • The Charaka Samhita is part of the B?hatTrayi (Great Trilogy) of Ayurveda and was expanded by D??habala.
  • Translated into Arabic, Latin, and other languages, reflecting its global medical influence.

Sage Sushruta – Father of Surgery

• Period: Circa 600–700 BCE
• Region:Practised in Kashi (Varanasi), likely under King Divodasa.
• Key Contribution:
  • A pioneering treatise in surgery and medical science.
  • Detailed 300+ surgical procedures and over 100 surgical instruments.
  • Innovations include rhinoplasty (nasal reconstruction), skin grafts, cataract surgery, and caesarean sections.
  • Explained fractures, dislocations, use of anaesthesia, and surgical training.
  • Emphasized dissection-based anatomy, practical education, and simulation for surgical learning.
  • Covered areas like public health, toxicology, pediatrics (Kaumarbhritya), and neonatal care.
  • Integrated scientific observation, hygiene, and evidence-based methods long before modern systems.

Collective Significance:

• Both are part of the B?hatTrayi (Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Ashtanga Hridaya), forming the backbone of Ayurvedic literature.
• Their work laid the foundation for:
  • Holistic medicine and ethical healthcare practice.
  • Advanced understanding of human physiology and embryology.
  • Scientific surgery, centuries ahead of global developments.
  • Contributions to child health (Kaumarbhritya) and public hygiene.
• Their texts influenced Arab and European medicine through translations such as Kitab-i-Susrud.

In News:

The Keezhadi archaeological site, located near Madurai along the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district, is a major site of cultural and historical significance. It offers compelling evidence of an urban, literate, and industrialized Tamil civilization dating back to the Sangam Age.

Background and Discovery

• Discovered: Surveys in 2013–14; Excavations began in 2015.
• Excavating Agencies: Initially conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and later by the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department.
• Excavated Area: Only 1 out of 100 acres has been explored; over 4,000 artefacts recovered.

Significant Findings

• Carbon Dating (AMS) of charcoal: Indicates urban habitation existed by 200 BCE.
• Key Discoveries: Brick structures, ring wells, pottery with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, beads, graffiti, water storage facilities, and a large decorative pot unique to the region.
• Artefacts suggest links with North India and Western trade networks.

Cultural and Historical Significance

• Suggests early urbanization in South India, independent of northern influence.
• Supports theories of a pre-Sangam urban Tamil culture.
• Establishes Keezhadi as a centre of literacy, trade, and craftsmanship.
• Mention of nearby settlements like Manalur and Konthagai in Tamil classics such as Tiruvilayadal Puranam strengthens the site's literary links.

Sangam Period Context

• Spanned approximately 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE.
• Tamil academies or ‘Sangams’ under the Pandya dynasty produced extensive literature.
• Notable texts: Tolkappiyam, Ettuthogai, Pattupattu, Padinenkilkanakku, and epics like Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, and CivakaCintamani.
• Literature depicts advanced socio-political systems, agriculture, trade, and maritime activities.

Current Issues and ASI Involvement

• The excavation report prepared by archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna (submitted in January 2023) has been returned by ASI for revision to ensure:
  • Accurate period classification.
  • Better stratigraphic and cartographic details.
  • Consistency in scientific dating and layer mapping.
• ASI has flagged the need for clearer mapping, missing illustrations, and precise scientific justification for dating claims, especially for Period I (8th to 5th century BCE).

Controversy and Criticism

• Concerns have been raised over delays in publishing excavation reports.
• Critics highlight a perceived bias in the handling of southern archaeological sites, pointing to similar delays with the Adichanallur site report.
• Experts stress the importance of transparent and timely reporting to enhance historical understanding.

In News:

A rare 16th-century sculptural inscription discovered near the Chandrashekara temple in Guttala village, Haveri district, Karnataka, marks the earliest known epigraphic evidence in India of a large-scale humanitarian disaster caused by a natural calamity—a drought (bara) that claimed 6,307 lives in 1539 CE (Saka 1461, August 18).

Key Features of the Inscription:

• Language and Script: Kannada.
• Medium: Stone slab.
• Depiction: A sculpture showing MarulaihOdeya, the son of NanidevaOdeya, carrying a basket containing dead bodies—representing his act of burying the deceased to earn religious merit for the regional ruler, TimmarasaSvami.
• Religious Context: The burial was conducted after paying homage to Basaveshwara, reflecting the spiritual and ritualistic practices of the time.
• Territorial Reference: Mentions the term "seeme", indicating the existence of local administrative divisions.

Significance:

• First explicit historical record in India of deaths caused by a natural disaster, making it an important source for disaster history and epigraphic heritage.
• Offers textual and visual representation of community response to drought.
• Provides insights into local governance, religious customs, and socio-economic conditions of 16th-century Karnataka.
• Adds depth to the study of historical climate events, with potential to track past climatic patterns and their impact on populations.

Broader Context:

• Inscriptions in India, typically engraved on stone or metal, serve as valuable primary sources for understanding royal decrees, battles, donations, and societal events.
• Other notable Karnataka inscriptions include:
  • Maski Edict (3rd Century BCE) – First mention of Emperor Ashoka as "Devanampriya".
  • Halmidi Inscription (c. 450 CE) – Oldest Kannada inscription referencing Kadamba king Kakusthavarma.
  • Aihole Inscription (634 CE) – Chronicles the military achievements of Pulakeshin II.

Recent Epigraphic Developments:

• The Epigraphy Branch of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) discovered and documented over 1,000 inscriptions across India during 2024–25, including more than 100 new finds this year alone.
• These discoveries reinforce the role of epigraphy in reconstructing Indian history, especially in areas lacking detailed literary sources.

In News:

In a historic win, Banu Mushtaq, a prominent Kannada writer, advocate, and activist, became the first Indian author writing in Kannada to win the International Booker Prize 2025 for her short story collection Heart Lamp. The book was translated into English by Deepa Bhasthi, who also became the first Indian translator to win this prestigious award.

About the International Booker Prize

• Established: 2005 by the Booker Prize Foundation, UK.
• Awarded: Annually.
• Purpose: To honour the best work of fiction translated into English, regardless of the original language or nationality of the author.
• Prize Amount: £50,000, shared equally between the author and the translator.
• Shortlisted nominees (authors and translators) receive £2,500 each.
• Focus: Unlike the Booker Prize, which honours original English-language works, the International Booker Prize exclusively celebrates translated fiction, highlighting the importance of translators in global literature.

Key Features

• Celebrates literary excellence, cultural richness, and the art of translation.
• Initially biennial (2005–2015), it became an annual award in 2016.
• Books must be translated into English and published in the UK or Ireland.

India and the International Booker Prize

Year                    Author                              Work                          Language               Translator

2022                Geetanjali Shree      Tomb of Sand     Hindi                     Daisy Rockwell

2025                Banu Mushtaq          Heart Lamp         Kannada             Deepa Bhasthi

About Banu Mushtaq

• Born: April 3, 1948, in Hassan, Karnataka.
• Professions: Advocate, journalist, feminist writer, women’s rights activist, and former municipal councillor.
• Affiliation: Prominent figure in the Bandaya movement, known for protest literature in Kannada addressing social injustices.
• Journalistic Background: Reported for LankeshPatrike (1981–1990) under the mentorship of P. Lankesh.

Literary Contributions

• Started writing: In 1974; first story published in Prajamatha.
• Themes: Focuses on gender justice, religious identity, caste oppression, and female autonomy.

Heart Lamp: The 2025 Winning Work

• Genre: Short story collection comprising 12 stories written between 1990 and 2023.
• Content: Explores the lives of ordinary South Indian Muslim women, addressing themes like patriarchy, faith, family roles, and self-determination.
• Significance:
  • First short story collection to win the International Booker Prize.
  • First Kannada-language work to win.
  • First win for Indian translator Deepa Bhasthi.

Other Notable Works by Banu Mushtaq

• Benki Male (1999): Awarded the Karnataka Sahitya Academy Award.
• HaseenaMattuItaraKathegalu (2015): Translated into English as Haseena and Other Stories.
• Black Cobra (Short Story): Adapted into the award-winning film Hasina by Girish Kasaravalli.

In News:

The 5th State-Level Shirui Lily Festival resumed in Ukhrul district, Manipur from May 20–24, 2025, after a two-year pause due to ethnic unrest. It marks a symbolic step towards peace, as it involved significant movement through previously restricted areas with heightened security.

About the Shirui Lily Festival:

• Organised by: Manipur Tourism Department
• First Held: 2017
• Venue:Shirui Village, Ukhrul District
• Objective: Promote eco-tourism and create awareness about the endangered Shirui Lily
• Special 2025 Edition: Commemorates the 75th anniversary of the discovery of the Shirui Lily

Key Features (2025 Edition):

• Cultural Events: Traditional dances, gospel rock shows, and live performances at the ShiRock music festival
• Eco-Initiatives: Trash collection drives and conservation awareness campaigns
• Competitions:
  • SheChef Cooking Contest (vegetarian & childhood memory dishes)
  • Miss Shirui Lily 2025 beauty pageant
  • Sports (football, wrestling, tug of war, mini-marathon)
• Adventure Activities: Ziplining, camping, biking
• Special Ceremonies: Unveiling of the 75th Anniversary Memorial and a drone show
• Closing Function: Hosted by senior officials from the Ministry of Tourism

About Shirui Lily (Lilium mackliniae):

• Botanical Name:Lilium mackliniae
• Discovered by: Botanist Frank Kingdon-Ward in 1946, named after his wife Jean Macklin
• Local Name:KashongTimrawon
• Geographic Range: Exclusively found in the Shirui Hills (2,673 m altitude) of Ukhrul district
• State Flower of Manipur

Ecological and Cultural Significance:

• Endemic Habitat: The species is not viable for transplantation outside its native micro-climate
• Flowering Season: April to June, marked by a breathtaking bloom of pinkish-white bell-shaped flowers
• Cultural Reverence: Associated with the local deity Philava, symbolising spiritual and ecological identity of the Tangkhul Naga tribe
• Global Recognition: Awarded by the Royal Horticultural Society at the London Flower Show in 1950

Conservation Status and Efforts:

• Threats: Habitat loss, invasive species, and climate change
• Conservation Status:Endangered
• Scientific Interventions: ICAR-NEH, under Dr. Manas Sahoo, has developed micropropagation techniques for in-situ conservation

In News:

Recently, the President of India, presented the 58thJnanpith Award to renowned Sanskrit scholar Jagadguru Rambhadracharya Ji at a function held at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi. She also extended congratulations to celebrated writer Gulzar, a fellow recipient who could not attend due to health reasons.

About Jagadguru Rambhadracharya

• A prominent Sanskrit scholar, spiritual leader, poet, and educationist.
• Despite being visually challenged, he has made significant literary and social contributions.
• Recognized for his multi-faceted excellence in Sanskrit literature and devotion to nation-building through literary and cultural service.

Highlights from the President’s Address

• Emphasized that literature unites and awakens society, playing a key role in movements from 19th-century social reform to the freedom struggle.
• Referenced the literary legacy of figures like Valmiki, Vyas, Kalidas, and Rabindranath Tagore as embodiments of India’s civilizational essence.
• Praised the BharatiyaJnanpith Trust for honoring literary excellence since 1965 across various Indian languages.
• Celebrated the contributions of women Jnanpith awardees such as Ashapurna Devi, Amrita Pritam, Mahasweta Devi, and Pratibha Ray, urging young women to draw inspiration from their works.

About the Jnanpith Award

Feature                                           Details

Established                                  1961

First Awarded                             1965 to Malayalam poet G. SankaraKurup for Odakkuzhal

OrganisedBy                                BharatiyaJnanpith, a literary and cultural organization founded in 1944

Eligibility                                         Indian citizens writing in Schedule VIII languages of the Constitution or

                                                   in English

Award Components              Cash prize, citation, and a bronze replica of Vagdevi (Saraswati)

Nature                                              Annual, but may be withheld if no suitable candidate is found

One-Time Recognition        A writer can receive the award only once

Language Rotation Rule     A language that has received the award is ineligible for the next two years

In News:

Prime Minister Narendra Modi will launch the revamped National Manuscripts Mission, which was announced in the Union Budget earlier this year, on June 9.

Key Highlights:

• Implementing Body: Ministry of Culture, Government of India
• Earlier Version: National Manuscripts Mission (est. 2003), under Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
• Objective:To survey, document, conserve, and digitize over one crore (10 million) Indian manuscripts located in academic institutions, libraries, museums, and private collections.

Key Features

• Massive Coverage: Targets over 1 crore manuscripts, making it India’s largest manuscript preservation project.
• Digital Repository: Creation of a National Digital Repository of Indian Knowledge Systems to ensure accessibility for researchers and the public. Includes AI-powered tools for metadata tagging, translation, and archiving.
• Modern Techniques: Uses advanced scientific conservation methods, including AI and 3D imaging.
• Collaborative Model: Engages academic institutions, libraries, museums, private collectors, and international bodies.
• Budgetary Support: Budget raised from ?3.5 crore to ?60 crore, with a total outlay of ?482.85 crore for 2024–31.

Background and Need

• The earlier NMM (2003) made limited progress. Out of 52 lakh manuscripts surveyed, only 3 lakh titles were digitized, and only 70,000 are currently viewable due to lack of access policy.
• 80% of manuscripts in India are privately owned, underscoring the need for public-private collaboration.
• Over 9 crore folios have been conserved (preventive and curative) in the last two decades.

What is a Manuscript?

A manuscript is a handwritten document (on paper, palm leaf, birch bark, etc.), at least 75 years old, and of historical, scientific, or artistic significance.

Example: The Bakhshali Manuscript (3rd–4th century BCE) is a key Indian text on mathematics, featuring the earliest known use of the symbol for zero.

In News:

In a significant move, families from the JenuKuruba tribe have begun returning to their ancestral lands located within Nagarhole National Park. This reoccupation marks an important step in their decades-long struggle to reclaim traditional forest habitats.

Who are the JenuKurubas?

The JenuKuruba are an indigenous tribal community classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) in India. They are primarily concentrated in the Kodagu and Mysuru districts of Karnataka.

• Etymology:The term "JenuKuruba" derives from Kannada—“jenu” means honey, reflecting their age-old practice of honey collection. Traditionally, they depend on forest produce, minor agriculture, and gathering activities for their livelihood.
• Alternate Names:They are also known as Then Kurumba or KattuNaikar in various local contexts.

Settlement and Lifestyle

• Habitat:The community resides in compact settlements known as “Hadi.”
• Living Style:They follow a semi-nomadic lifestyle, shaped by their deep relationship with forest ecosystems rather than external authorities like the state, police, or religious institutions.

Community Structure

• Governance:
  The JenuKurubas follow a traditional leadership hierarchy that includes:
  • Yajamana (Headman) – responsible for social matters
  • Gudda (Ritual Head) – oversees religious ceremonies

While the Gudda handles spiritual issues, all other community functions are managed locally under the guidance of the Yajamana.

Belief System and Culture

• Spiritual Beliefs:Their religion is rooted in the worship of supernatural spirits and deities unique to their tradition. These spiritual entities have distinct identities and are central to their worldview.
• Cultural Expressions:Music, dance, and oral storytelling are vital cultural practices. Their traditional songs and dances revolve around themes of agriculture, marriage, mythology, and faith.

Significance of the return to Nagarhole

The recent return of JenuKuruba families to Nagarhole represents not just a physical homecoming, but a cultural revival. For the tribe, the forest is not just a resource—it is sacred ground tied to their identity, heritage, and spiritual life.

Their reoccupation reopens long-standing debates about conservation, indigenous rights, and forest governance in India.

In News:

A group of international Buddhist scholars and monastics has voiced strong objections to the proposed auction of the Piprahwa Gems. These jewels, long venerated as relics intimately linked to the historical Buddha, are at the center of a heated debate over their sale.

Background of the Piprahwa Gems

• Discovery Site: The gems were unearthed in 1898 at Piprahwa, in present-day Uttar Pradesh, where a stupa (Buddhist burial monument) once stood.
• Historical Significance: An inscription on one of the reliquaries claims the stupa housed the physical remains of the Buddha, who passed away circa 480 BCE.
• Excavation: The find was made by William Claxton Peppé, a British colonial engineer, during work on his estate. It marked the first scientifically credible recovery of Buddha’s relics in modern times.

Composition and Distribution

• Material Variety: The collection comprises roughly 1,800 pieces, including amethysts, coral, garnets, pearls, rock crystal, shells, and gold, fashioned into beads, pendants, and other ornaments, as well as unworked specimens.
• Custodial History: Under the 1878 Indian Treasure Trove Act, the British Crown claimed the entire hoard. Most of these gems were subsequently transferred to the Indian Museum in Kolkata. Peppé retained around one-fifth of the collection—items colonial officials deemed “duplicates”—which later entered private hands.
• International Gift: The British gifted the stupa’s bone and ash fragments to King Chulalongkorn of Siam (modern-day Thailand), further dispersing relics tied to the find.

Contemporary Concerns

Many in the Buddhist community argue that auctioning these gems violates their sacred status and severs the spiritual connection believers feel to the Buddha’s remains. They call for the jewels to remain in public or religious trust, rather than being treated as collectors’ items in the art market.

In News:

A rare 7th-century Old Kannada inscription from the reign of Vikramaditya I of the Badami Chalukyas has been discovered at Madapura Lake in Davangere, Karnataka. The inscription sheds light on taxation, land grants, and regional governance during his rule.

About the Badami Chalukyas

• Origins: Emerged as a regional Kannada power claiming descent from Ayodhya to establish legitimacy.
• Capital:Vatapi (present-day Badami, Karnataka).
• Notable Rulers and Political History:
  • Pulakesin I (543–566 CE): Founder of the dynasty; fortified Badami.
  • Pulakesin II (609–642 CE): Most celebrated ruler; defeated Harshavardhana at the Narmada river; established diplomatic contacts with Persia (depicted in Ajanta caves).
  • Vikramaditya I (644–681 CE): Son of Pulakesin II; reclaimed Badami from Pallavas and expanded influence over southern kingdoms like the Cholas, Pandyas, and Keralas.
• Administration:
  • Centralised monarchy with limited autonomy granted to villages.
  • Economy relied on land revenue and military conquests.
  • Maintained a naval fleet—Pulakesin II had around 100 ships.
• Religion:Patronised Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, and Jainism. Vikramaditya I and others made donations to Jain institutions; Pulakesin I performed Ashvamedha Yajna.
• Art and Architecture:
  • Developed the Vesara style, a fusion of northern Nagara and southern Dravida temple architecture.
  • Constructed rock-cut and structural temples in Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal.

About Vikramaditya I

• Background: Son of Pulakesin II; ascended the throne during a period of political turmoil following his father's death and Pallava invasion.
• Military Achievements:
  • Defeated Narasimhavarman I of the Pallavas, who had earlier seized Badami.
  • Reunited the fractured Chalukya empire, restoring its former prestige.
  • Subdued southern powers including the Cholas, Pandyas, and Keralas, consolidating control over the southern Deccan.
• Political Consolidation:
  • Re-established central authority across Karnataka and surrounding regions.
  • Appointed loyal feudatories, such as Singhavenna (mentioned in the new Davangere inscription), to manage local governance.
• Legacy:
  • Known by titles such as Rajamalla (King of Kings) and Yuddhamalla (Warrior King).
  • His reign marked a revival of Chalukya power and paved the way for cultural and architectural achievements under his successors Vikramaditya II and Kirtivarman II.

In News:

Ancient bone spear tip found in Russia is oldest in Europe and made by Neanderthals.

What Was Discovered?

• Oldest known spear tip in Europe, crafted by Neanderthals, not Homo sapiens.
• Found in a cave in the North Caucasus region, Russia.
• Dated to 70,000–80,000 years ago, prior to modern human arrival in Europe (~45,000 years ago).
• Study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science.

Artefact Features

• Length: ~9 cm
• Material: Bone (likely from bison)
• Construction:
  • Shaped using stone tools
  • Attached to a wooden shaft with natural tar (early adhesive use)
• Function:
  • Micro-cracks indicate impact with a hard target – used in hunting or combat
  • Minimal wear, suggesting it was used shortly after construction

Excavation Details

• Excavated in 2003, thoroughly analyzed recently.
• Found with animal bones and campfire remains – evidence of Neanderthal habitation.
• Analytical techniques used: Spectroscopy, CT scans, Microscopy

In News:

Following the revival of Nalanda University, another historic centre of learning—Vikramshila University in Bihar—is now set for rejuvenation. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) began developing the site in December 2023 to boost heritage tourism. Simultaneously, the Bihar government has earmarked 202.14 acres of land in Antichak village, Bhagalpur district, for setting up a Central University at the ancient site.

The revival project was approved by the Central Government in 2015 with a sanctioned budget of ?500 crore. However, work was delayed due to issues in land acquisition. With recent approval of ?87.99 crore for land procurement and the identification of suitable land, the project has regained momentum. The site is located about 3 km from the ancient ruins of the original university.

Historical Background:

• Vikramshila University was founded in the late 8th or early 9th century AD by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty as a response to declining academic standards at Nalanda.
• Situated along the banks of the Ganges in eastern India, Vikramshila emerged as a major hub of Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana) and occult studies, distinguishing itself from the broader curriculum of Nalanda.
• During its peak, Vikramshila housed over 1,000 students and 100 teachers, many of whom came from other parts of India and abroad.
• The university became renowned for its scholarship in theology, logic, metaphysics, grammar, philosophy, and especially tantric studies, which were popular in both Buddhism and Hinduism during that era. Among its most prominent scholars was AtisaDipankara, who played a key role in the spread of Buddhism to Tibet.
• The university featured a central cruciform brick stupa surrounded by 208 monk cells, arranged symmetrically on all four sides. A major architectural marvel of the site is its library, which had an innovative cooling system where water from a nearby reservoir was used to preserve manuscripts. This reflects the advanced engineering and scholarly focus of the institution.
• Although Nalanda and Vikramshila were separate entities, they often collaborated and shared scholars under the patronage of King Dharmapala. At one point, Vikramshila even held administrative authority over Nalanda.

Decline:

Vikramshila flourished for nearly four centuries before being destroyed around 1203 AD during the invasions of Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, the same event that marked the end of Nalanda University. The decline was also contributed to by the waning influence of Buddhism in India and the rise of Hinduism.

Recent Initiatives:

The ASI has divided the Vikramshila ruins into grids for careful excavation and preservation. A museum at the site displays several important antiquities, including sculptures of Buddhist and Hindu deities like Avalokiteshvara, Loknath, Surya, Vishnu, Ganesh, and more. Restoration work is also underway on NH-80, which connects Vikramshila to Bhagalpur city, about 50 km away.

In News:

On Shaheed Diwas (23rd March), the nation commemorates the supreme sacrifice of three iconic freedom fighters—Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar. Prime Minister Narendra Modi paid tribute to these martyrs, remembering their unwavering resolve and courageous efforts in the struggle for India's independence. This day marks the execution of these three revolutionaries by British colonial authorities in Lahore Jail in 1931.

Background of the Martyrs

The trio was convicted for their involvement in the 1928 Lahore Conspiracy Case, which revolved around the killing of J.P. Saunders, a British officer. The incident occurred after Saunders was mistakenly identified as Superintendent James Scott, who was blamed for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai during a protest against the Simon Commission. The execution of these freedom fighters on 23rd March 1931 became a symbol of their sacrifice for the cause of India’s freedom.

The three were members of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), a revolutionary group that sought to overthrow British rule through armed struggle. Their fearless actions continue to inspire the nation to this day.

Brief Profiles of the Martyrs

• Bhagat Singh (1907–1931): Born in Punjab, Bhagat Singh was a prominent revolutionary who played a key role in the fight against British rule. He is remembered for his bold actions, such as the bombing of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1929, and his fearless stand against colonial oppression. His execution at the age of 23 became a catalyst for the freedom struggle.
• Shivaram Rajguru (1908–1931): Born in Maharashtra, Rajguru was a committed revolutionary who, along with Bhagat Singh, was involved in the assassination of J.P. Saunders. He was known for his dedication to the cause of armed resistance and his determination to fight colonial oppression. Rajguru was executed at the age of 23.
• Sukhdev Thapar (1907–1931): A key figure in mobilizing youth for the freedom struggle, Sukhdev was born in Punjab. He played a significant role in the activities of the HSRA and was instrumental in organizing protests and revolutionary activities. His execution, like that of his fellow revolutionaries, became a symbol of the ultimate sacrifice for India's freedom.

In News:

The Ministry of Culture has implemented several schemes aimed at supporting the growth and preservation of India's rich art and cultural heritage. One of the key initiatives is the ‘Financial Assistance for Promotion of Art and Culture’ Scheme, a Central Sector Scheme that provides financial support to eligible cultural organizations across the country. Below is an overview of the scheme, its components, and eligibility criteria.

Eligibility Criteria for Organizations

To be eligible for assistance under this scheme, cultural organizations must meet the following criteria:

• Registered as a society, trust, or not-for-profit company for at least three years.
• Registered on the NGO Darpan Portal of NITI Aayog.
• Have a primary focus on cultural activities.
• Submit audited financial statements for the last three years.
• Have filed Income Tax returns during the last three years.

Sub-Components of the Scheme

The scheme consists of eight sub-components, each designed to support different aspects of art and culture across India.

• Financial Assistance to Cultural Organizations with National Presence
  • Objective: To support large cultural organizations with a nationwide presence.
  • Grant Amount: Up to Rs. 1 crore (may increase to Rs. 5 crore in exceptional cases).
• Cultural Function & Production Grant (CFPG)
  • Objective: Provides financial aid for cultural events like seminars, conferences, research, workshops, festivals, exhibitions, and productions of dance, drama, and music.
  • Grant Amount: Up to Rs. 5 lakh (may increase to Rs. 20 lakh in exceptional cases).
• Financial Assistance for the Preservation & Development of Cultural Heritage of the Himalayas
  • Objective: To promote and preserve the cultural heritage of the Himalayan region, including Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Grant Amount: Up to Rs. 10 lakh per year (may increase to Rs. 30 lakh in exceptional cases).
• Financial Assistance for the Preservation & Development of Buddhist/Tibetan Organizations
  • Objective: To support Buddhist/Tibetan organizations, including monasteries, in preserving and developing Buddhist/Tibetan culture and traditions.
  • Grant Amount: Up to Rs. 30 lakh per year (may increase to Rs. 1 crore in exceptional cases).
• Financial Assistance for Building Grants including Studio Theatres
  • Objective: To provide financial support for creating cultural infrastructure, such as studio theatres, auditoriums, and rehearsal halls, along with providing essential facilities like lighting, acoustics, and sound systems.
  • Grant Amount: Up to Rs. 50 lakh in metro cities and Rs. 25 lakh in non-metro cities.
• Financial Assistance for Allied Cultural Activities
  • Objective: To assist in the creation of assets that enhance the audio-visual spectacle for live performances and cultural activities.
  • Grant Amount:
    • Audio: Up to Rs. 1 crore.
    • Audio + Video: Up to Rs. 1.5 crore (includes 5 years of operation and maintenance costs).
• Intangible Cultural Heritage
  • Objective: To safeguard and promote India’s intangible cultural heritage, supporting institutions, groups, and NGOs involved in relevant activities.
  • Grant Amount: Varies based on specific activities.
• Domestic Festivals and Fairs
  • Objective: To assist in organizing RashtriyaSanskritiMahotsavs (National Culture Festivals) across India, engaging artists and showcasing various cultural traditions.
  • Grant Amount: Event-based assistance; Rs. 38.67 crore was released in the last three years for these events.

Implementation and Monitoring

The Ministry of Culture closely monitors the effective utilization of funds under this scheme through:

• Utilization Certificates and audited financial statements.
• On-site physical inspections to assess the progress and impact of the funded projects.
• Regular oversight ensures that the assistance is used for its intended purpose and meets the objectives of cultural promotion and preservation.

Support for Individual Artists and Cultural Research

In addition to the above schemes, the Ministry of Culture also supports individual artists and cultural researchers through the ‘Scheme of Scholarship and Fellowship for Promotion of Art and Culture’. This scheme includes the following components:

• Award of Scholarships to Young Artists (SYA)
  • Objective: To support young artists aged 18-25 years in various cultural fields.
  • Duration: 2 years.
  • Eligibility: Applicants should have undergone at least 5 years of training under a recognized guru or institution.
• Award of Senior/Junior Fellowships
  • Senior Fellowship: For individuals 40 years and above to support cultural research.
  • Junior Fellowship: For individuals 25-40 years for cultural research.
  • Up to 400 Fellowships are awarded annually.
• Tagore National Fellowship for Cultural Research
  • Objective: To provide funding for cultural research under two categories: Tagore National Fellowship and Tagore Research Scholarship.
  • Selection: Fellows and scholars are selected by the National Selection Committee.
• Project Grants for Research in Performing Arts
  • Objective: To provide financial assistance to individuals conducting research in performing arts.

In News:

The PEPSU Muzhara Movement, commemorated annually on March 19, was a significant agrarian uprising by landless tenant farmers (muzharas) in Punjab demanding ownership rights over the land they cultivated. It stands as a historic resistance against feudal and colonial exploitation.

Background & Region

• Initiation: Started in the 1930s in the Patiala princely state.
• Expanded Across: 784 villages in present-day Patiala, Barnala, Mansa, Sangrur, Bathinda, Mohali, Fatehgarh Sahib, Faridkot (Punjab), and Jind (now in Haryana).
• After independence, the region was reorganized into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), where the movement intensified.

Who Were the Muzharas?

• Muzharas were landless tenant farmers who cultivated land owned by biswedars (feudal landlords).
• They were forced to give one-third of their produce to landlords, who further paid a share to princely rulers, who in turn paid the British.
• Even after Independence (1947), landlords continued this exploitative practice, leading to widespread unrest.

Causes of the Movement

• Feudal oppression and loss of ancestral land.
• Colonial revenue structure perpetuated peasant poverty.
• Post-independence continuation of feudal demands.
• Denial of land ownership despite generations of cultivation.

Key Leaders

• Jagir Singh Joga – Organised and united tenant farmers.
• Buta Singh – Advocate for land redistribution.
• Teja Singh Sutantar – Linked the struggle with broader peasant movements.
• Sewa Singh Thikriwala – Anti-feudal ideologue and early inspiration.
• Bhai Jodh Singh – Strengthened the movement through grassroots mobilisation.

Phases and Nature of the Movement

• Peaceful Protests: Initial petitions and mobilisations.
• Armed Resistance: Tenant farmers took up arms for self-defense as repression increased.
• Mass Mobilisation: Conferences, rallies, and united action across villages.

Significance of March 19

• In March 1949, landlords attempted to reclaim cultivated lands in Kishangarh (Mansa district).
• The muzharas resisted by harvesting crops themselves, leading to a violent standoff.
• On March 17, a police officer was killed, resulting in the arrest of 35 muzharas—all acquitted by 1950.
• On March 19, 1949, the army surrounded the village, and four muzharas were killed.
• Since 1953, March 19 has been observed as “Muzhara Shaheedi Diwas”, honouring martyrs of the movement.

Outcome

• Land Reforms (1952): The movement culminated in reforms granting ownership rights to tenant farmers.
• Became a symbol of peasant resistance against exploitation and injustice.

In News:

The Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs of Narayanpet district, Telangana have been included in India’s UNESCO Tentative World Heritage Sites list in 2025, highlighting their archaeological, cultural, and astronomical significance. Telangana now has two tentative UNESCO heritage sites, the first being the Ramappa Temple (inscribed in 2021).

What are Menhirs and Megaliths?

• Menhirs are large, upright standing stones, often tapered at the top, used by prehistoric communities.
• They served ritual, memorial, or astronomical purposes and are found globally, with prominent examples in Europe such as Stonehenge (UK) and Carnac (France).
• Megaliths refer broadly to prehistoric stone structures, used for burials (like dolmens, cairns, cists) or as commemorative monuments (like menhirs).
• In India, megalithic culture thrived during the Iron Age (c. 1500 BCE–500 BCE), especially in the Deccan Plateau (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana).

Significance of the MudumalMenhirs

• Age: Estimated to date back 3,500–4,000 years (1000 BCE–300 BCE).
• Site extent: Spread across 80 acres near the Krishna River, the site comprises:
  • Around 80 large menhirs (10–14 feet tall).
  • Nearly 3,000 alignment stones set in rows, believed to represent funerary rites and astronomical alignments.
• Astronomical importance: The alignments correspond with solar events such as solstices and equinoxes.
  • A unique cup-marked stone represents the Ursa Major (Saptarshi) constellation—South Asia’s earliest known star depiction.
  • Suggests advanced prehistoric knowledge of celestial navigation and calendar calculation.

Cultural and Living Traditions

• The site continues to hold spiritual value among locals.
  • Menhirs are revered as "NilurallaThimmappa" (Thimmappa of the Standing Stones).
  • One stone is worshipped as Goddess Yellamma, blending ancient heritage with living cultural practices.

Path Toward UNESCO World Heritage Status

• The MudumalMenhirs are among six sites added to India’s Tentative List in 2025, alongside:
  • Kanger Valley National Park (Chhattisgarh)
  • Ashokan Edict Sites (Multiple States)
  • Chausath Yogini Temples (MP & Odisha)
  • Gupta Temples (Multiple States)
  • Palace-Fortresses of the Bundelas (MP & UP)
• India now has 62 sites on the Tentative List, a prerequisite for UNESCO nomination.

In News:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) recently made significant archaeological findings in the Sri Lankamalleswara Wildlife Sanctuary, located in the Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh. During an epigraphical survey, ASI discovered three rock shelters, rock paintings, and 30 inscriptions, highlighting the region’s historical and cultural significance.

Key Facts:

• Location: Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh.
• Water bodies:
  • The sanctuary forms the catchment area of the Pennar River.
  • The Telugu Ganga Canal flows through the eastern part and drains into the Pennar.

Biodiversity:

• Vegetation types:
  • Southern tropical dry deciduous forests (hills)
  • Scrub forests (plains)
  • Southern dry mixed deciduous forests
  • Tropical thorn forests
  • Tropical dry evergreen forests
• Flora:
  • Rare and endangered species: Red Sanders, Sandalwood
  • Riparian vegetation: Terminalia spp., Syzygium spp. (Jamun), Wild Mangoes, Anogeissuslatifolia, Phoenix spp., Bamboo, Hardwickiabinata
• Fauna:
  • Notable species: Common toad, Bullfrog, Common Indian skink, Green vine snake
  • Critically endangered species: Jerdon’s Courser — this sanctuary is the only known habitat of this bird.

In News:

Prime Minister Narendra Modi, at the NXT Conclave, highlighted the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, as an example of outdated colonial legislation that continued in India long after independence. Though declared unconstitutional in 1956, the Act was formally repealed in 2017 as part of the government's initiative to eliminate obsolete laws and improve ease of doing business.

About the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876

Purpose and Background:

• Enacted by the British colonial government to suppress nationalist sentiments expressed through theatre and performance arts.
• Followed the 1875–76 visit of Prince of Wales (Albert Edward) to India, a period that saw increased resistance against colonial rule.
• Part of a broader strategy alongside other repressive laws such as the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Sedition Law (1870).

Key Provisions:

• Wide Banning Powers: Authorities could prohibit any play, pantomime, or public performance deemed seditious, defamatory, scandalous, or obscene.
• Search and Seizure: Magistrates had the authority to raid venues, seize performance materials, and cancel licenses.
• Punishment: Violations could lead to up to 3 months' imprisonment, fines, or both.
• Covered theatre groups, performers, and venues hosting dramatic works.

Post-Independence Status:

Continued Operation:

• Article 372 of the Indian Constitution allowed pre-existing colonial laws to remain valid until repealed or declared unconstitutional.
• The Act was adopted in some states like Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Delhi, and Tamil Nadu.

Judicial Rejection:

• In 1956, the Allahabad High Court, in State vs. Baboo Lal &Ors., ruled the Act unconstitutional, citing violation of Article 19(1)(a) (Freedom of Speech and Expression).
• The Court found the Act’s procedural provisions ultra vires and beyond the permissible limits under Article 19(2).

Notable Case:

• In 1953, the Indian People’s Theatre Association (IPTA) attempted to stage ‘Idgah’, based on Munshi Premchand's story.
• The performance was abruptly banned mid-show by the local magistrate. The theatre group defied the order, leading to the court case that triggered the judicial review.

Final Repeal:

• Although unused since 1956, the law remained on the statute books until its formal repeal through the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017.
• This repeal was part of a larger reform initiative launched by the Modi government in 2014, which has repealed over 2,000 obsolete laws to streamline the legal system and boost administrative efficiency.

In News:

President DroupadiMurmu recently visited Dholavira, a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Gujarat, India. She expressed appreciation for the Archaeological Survey of India’s (ASI) meticulous conservation efforts to preserve this ancient site, despite its remote location.

Location and Significance:

Dholavira is situated on Khadir Bet Island in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, within the Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary and along the Tropic of Cancer. It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021 due to its remarkable contributions to understanding the Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilization, one of the world's earliest urban cultures.

Key Features:

• City Layout and Construction:Dholavira is distinct from other Harappan sites in its layout, divided into three main sections: the Citadel, the Middle Town, and the Lower Town. The city is unique for its extensive use of stone in construction, unlike the brick-built cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. It also featured multi-purpose grounds, including a marketplace and a festive area.
• Water Conservation System:The site is renowned for its sophisticated water management techniques, which included 16 massive reservoirs, stepwells, check dams, and underground water storage systems. This advanced water conservation system earned it the name "Jal Durga" or "Water Fort." The engineering skills of the Harappans, especially in water harvesting, were far ahead of their time and continue to be admired today.
• Trade and Cultural Exchange:Dholavira was a significant trade hub, connected to regions such as Magan (modern Oman) and Mesopotamia. It is believed to have been involved in the trade of copper, jewelry, and timber. The site yielded a variety of artifacts, including terracotta pottery, seals, ornaments, and evidence of metallurgy, along with inscriptions in the Indus Valley script.
• Archaeological Discoveries:The site was first discovered by Jagat Pati Joshi in 1967 and excavated systematically between 1990 and 2005 under Dr. Ravindra Singh Bisht of ASI. It is the fifth-largest site of the Indus Valley Civilization and provides evidence of habitation over seven cultural phases from 3000 to 1500 BCE. Notably, no human remains have been found, but the presence of architectural structures, artifacts, and inscriptions gives a rich understanding of the ancient civilization's culture and economy.
• Technological Advancements:The President, during her visit, highlighted the technological advancements of the Harappans, particularly in urban planning and water management, which were superior in many respects to the technology of modern times.

Historical Context:

The Harappan Civilization, flourishing from around 3300 to 1300 BCE along the Indus River, was an urban society known for its advanced city planning, sanitation systems, and trade networks. Dholavira stands out as a crucial link in understanding the broader scope of this civilization. Other key Harappan sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Banawali, Lothal, and Ropar.

In News:

In his address to the 25th edition of Jahan-e-Khusrau at New Delhi’s Sunder Nursery, Prime Minister Narendra Modi described the annual music festival that commemorates the Sufi poet-musician Amir Khusrau as imbued with the “fragrance of the soil of Hindustan”.

Introduction

• Amir Khusrau, a 13th-century poet, musician, and scholar, is a prominent figure in India’s cultural history.
• Known as Tuti-yi-Hind (the Parrot of India), Khusrau’s contributions spanned literature, music, and the Sufi spiritual tradition.
• Revered for his role in shaping India’s syncretic culture, blending Persian, Turkic, and Indian elements.

Early Life and Background

• Born in 1253 in Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, to a Turkic father and Indian Muslim mother.
• His family migrated to India due to Mongol invasions of Transoxiana.
• Grew up under the patronage of the Delhi Sultanate, serving five rulers: MuizuddinQaiqabad, JalaluddinKhalji, AlauddinKhalji, Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah, and GhiyasuddinTughlaq.

Literary Contributions

• Wrote in Persian and Hindavi, blending Turkic, Persian, and Indian traditions.
• Contributed significantly to the development of Hindavi, the precursor to modern Hindi and Urdu.
• Works include Divans (poetry collections), Mathnawis (narrative poems), and treatises.
• Advocated for Hindu-Muslim unity, promoting syncretic culture (Ganga-JamuniTehzeeb).
• Known for writing riddles, proverbs, and playful verses, which made literature accessible to the common people.
• Praised Hindu philosophical thought in his works, such as MasnaviNuhSiphir.

Musical Contributions

• Credited with creating several ragas, developing khayal (a classical Hindustani music form), and tarana (rhythmic vocal composition).
• Played a significant role in popularizing qawwali, a devotional Sufi music genre, by blending Persian, Arabic, and Indian musical traditions.
• Believed to have invented the sitar and tabla, though evidence is debated.
• Famous qawwalis include ChhaapTilak, Zehal-e-Maskeen, and Sakal Ban PhoolRahiSarson.

Role in the Delhi Sultanate

• Served as a court poet for at least five Delhi Sultans over five decades, a testament to his literary excellence.
• His compositions were vital in enhancing the Sultan’s political and cultural legitimacy.
• Sultan JalaluddinKhalji bestowed upon him the title Amir in recognition of his contributions to poetry.

Spiritual and Sufi Influence

• A devoted disciple of the Chishti Sufi saint NizamuddinAuliya, whose teachings on love and devotion to God deeply influenced Khusrau’s poetry and music.
• Balanced his role as a court poet with devotion to the Sufi order, bridging the worlds of royal courts and spiritual practices.
• His deep spiritual connection to NizamuddinAuliya is immortalized by their shared burial site in Delhi.

Sufism in India

• Sufism is the mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam, emphasizing love, devotion, and inner purification.
• Sufism emerged as a reaction to the rigidity of institutionalized religion and developed alongside India’s Bhakti movement.
• Key Sufi Orders in India:
  • Chishti Order: The most influential in India, founded by KhwajaMoinuddin Chishti, focusing on love, devotion, and harmony.
  • Suhrawardi Order: Focused on combining religious knowledge with mysticism.
  • Naqshbandi Order: Opposed innovations like musical recitals and pilgrimages.
  • Rishi Order: Based in Kashmir, drawing from the Shaivite bhakti tradition.

Impact of Sufism in India

• Sufism promoted religious tolerance, social reform, and a deep connection to spirituality.
• It attracted marginalized communities and weakened caste hierarchies.
• Sufi shrines and dargahs became pilgrimage sites for spiritual blessings.
• Influenced Indian music (especially qawwali) and literature, with poets like Bulleh Shah and Sultan Bahu.
• Promoted Sulh-e-Kul (peace with all), a concept that influenced Akbar’s religious tolerance policies.

Khusrau’s Lasting Legacy

• Amir Khusrau’s influence extends across literature, music, and spirituality in India.
• His poetry and music are celebrated today in both sacred and secular contexts.
• His works laid the foundation for the development of Urdu and Hindi literature.
• Khusrau’s teachings on Hindu-Muslim unity and cultural synthesis remain relevant in contemporary India.

In News:

The Prime Minister of India is set to attend the Jhumoir Binandini (Mega Jhumoir) 2025, a grand cultural event featuring around 8,600 performers showcasing the traditional Jhumur dance. This event highlights the rich cultural contributions of the tea tribe community of Assam.

About Jhumoir (Jhumur) Dance

• Jhumur, also known as Jhumoir, is a traditional folk dance performed predominantly by the Adivasi tea tribes of Assam.
• It is typically showcased during the harvest season, as well as on occasions like weddings and community festivals.
• The dance was introduced to Assam by the tea garden workers, who originally migrated from regions like Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal in the 19th century under British colonial rule.

Cultural Origins and Community

• The dance traces its roots to the Sadan ethnolinguistic group from the Chotanagpur plateau (present-day Jharkhand).
• The tea tribe community is a multi-ethnic group comprising descendants of migrant tea garden laborers.
• These communities have significantly shaped Assam’s socio-cultural landscape.

Performance Style and Attire

• Jhumur is performed in a circular formation, with dancers often holding each other's waists.
• The performance features rhythmic footwork, swaying movements, and energetic music.
• Women typically wear colorful sarees, often in red and white, while men dress in dhotis and kurtas.
• The musical accompaniment includes traditional instruments like the Madal, Dhol, Dhak, Taal (cymbals), and Flute.

Themes and Social Significance

• Jhumur songs blend liveliness with social commentary, often highlighting the struggles, exploitation, and migration experiences of the tea plantation workers.
• Major tea garden festivals where Jhumur is performed include Tushu Puja and Karam Puja, both celebrating the harvest.
• The dance fosters community bonding, promotes cultural pride, and represents Assam’s syncretic cultural heritage.
• It stands as a symbol of inclusivity, unity, and the resilience of the tea tribe community.

In News:

The Mising tribe, Assam’s largest tribal community, celebrated Ali Ai Ligang in Shankarpur, Jorhat, on the first Wednesday of the Fagun month.

About the Mising Tribe

• Region: Indigenous tribe from Northeast India; primarily reside in Upper Assam and parts of Arunachal Pradesh, with some presence in South Tibet (China).
• Population: As per Census 2011, there are 6,80,424 Mising people in Assam.
• Ethnolinguistic Group: Belong to the Tani group, speak Tibeto-Burmese languages.
• Referred as: Called “Lhobhas” (southerners) by Tibetans.
• Unique Feature: Known as the only riparian tribe of Northeast India, with livelihoods closely linked to rivers like the Brahmaputra.
• Habitat: Construct stilt houses known as Chang Ghar to withstand seasonal floods.

Cultural and Religious Practices

• Religion: Practice Donyi-Poloism – worship of the Sun (Donyi) and the Moon (Polo) as supreme deities.
• Traditional Economy:
  • Traditionally practiced Jhum (slash and burn) cultivation.
  • Now settled cultivators skilled in wet paddy cultivation.
  • Engage in fishing, weaving, and vegetable farming.
  • Women are proficient in weaving traditional Mising textiles.

Ali Ai Ligang Festival

• Main Festival of the Mising community.
• Timing: Celebrated in February, on the first Wednesday of Fagun month (as per the Assamese calendar).
• Name Meaning:
  • Ali – edible root
  • Ai – seed
  • Ligang – sowing

Signifies the beginning of the agricultural cycle – first sowing of seeds and roots.

Significance and Rituals

• Purpose: Marks the start of cultivation, invokes blessings from Donyi-Polo to protect crops from pests and natural calamities.
• Community Importance: Strengthens communal ties and preserves agrarian traditions.
• Ritual Practices:
  • Morung Okum (Morung Ghar) – youth dormitory where offerings like Apong (rice beer), dry meat, and fish are made.
  • Gumrag Dance – performed by men and women to signify joy, unity, and prosperity.
  • Feast and Dress – Traditional Mising delicacies are prepared, and people wear colorful ethnic attire.

Modern Celebrations

• Originally village-based, now also celebrated in urban centers like Jorhat.
• Includes stage performances, cultural competitions, and large community gatherings.
• In Jorhat, it has been celebrated for the past 40 years, organized annually by Mising Agom Kebang (Mising apex literary and cultural body).

In News:

During a recent diplomatic visit, Prime Minister Narendra Modi gifted French President Emmanuel Macron and the First Lady symbolic Indian artifacts — a Dokra artwork and a silver hand-engraved mirror — showcasing India’s rich heritage of tribal and fine metal craftsmanship.

Key Highlights:

Dokra Art: A Living Tradition

• Dokra, also known as Dhokra, is a non-ferrous metal casting craft that employs the lost-wax technique, practiced for over 4,000 years.
• It is predominantly practiced by Ojha metalsmiths and DhokraDamar tribes, across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, and Telangana.
• Notable for its seamless brass sculptures, each Dokra artifact is cast using a single-use clay and wax mould, ensuring that no two pieces are identical.
• Dokra items include figurines, utensils, jewelry, and religious motifs, often reflecting tribal life and nature.

Historical Significance:

• The “Dancing Girl” of Mohenjo-Daro (from the Harappan Civilization) is considered one of the earliest examples of Dokra-style metal casting, underlining its archaeological and civilizational importance.

Craftsmanship Features:

• The casting process takes nearly a month per piece, reflecting the labour-intensive and skilled nature of the art.
• Dokra is globally recognized for its sustainability, aesthetic uniqueness, and its ability to merge function with folklore.

In News:

In a significant step towards decolonising the Indian Armed Forces and aligning with indigenous historical consciousness, Fort William, the headquarters of the Eastern Command of the Indian Army in Kolkata, has been renamed Vijay Durg. This renaming is part of a broader initiative to remove colonial-era symbols and practices and restore Indian military heritage.

Historical Background of Fort William

• Construction: The original Fort William was constructed in 1696 by the English East India Company. It was later attacked and captured by Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, in 1756.
• The Black Hole Incident: The original fort had an inner bastion used for imprisoning captives, leading to the infamous “Black Hole of Calcutta” narrative.
• Reconstruction: After the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah, Robert Clive initiated the construction of a new fort, which was completed in 1773 or 1781 (sources differ).
• Naming: It was named Fort William in honour of King William III of England.

Architectural Features

• Design: The fort is octagonal in shape with a massive structure made of brick and mortar.
• Area: Spread across 70.9 acres on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River, it features hundreds of arched windows and lush green surroundings.
• Aesthetics: Its walls are adorned with intricate stonework, reflecting colonial military architecture.

Recent Changes and Renaming

• New Name: Vijay Durg – Inspired by Vijaydurg Fort in Maharashtra, a prominent naval base of the Marathas under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
• Other Changes:
  • Kitchener House has been renamed Manekshaw House, after Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw.
  • St. George’s Gate has been renamed Shivaji Gate.
• Implementation: According to the Defence Public Relations Office in Kolkata, the name change was decided in mid-December 2024, and internal communications have already adopted the new nomenclature, though an official notification is awaited.

Broader De-Colonisation Drive in Indian Defence

The renaming of Fort William is part of a larger movement initiated by the Government of India to eliminate colonial vestiges in the armed forces. Prime Minister Narendra Modi, in a 2022 speech at Kevadia, Gujarat, urged the forces to discard “legacy systems” and move towards “freedom from the mentality of slavery (gulami ki mansikta se mukti)”.

Key Initiatives:

• Indianisation of military music during the Beating Retreat ceremony.
• Adoption of a new naval ensign (2022) inspired by the seal of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, moving away from British colonial symbols.
• Renaming of military establishments and symbols rooted in colonial heritage.
• Review publication (2024) titled “Colonial Practices and the Armed Forces – A Review”, released at the Joint Commanders’ Conference in Lucknow by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh.

In News:

In a significant development, tribal families from Neelabandha, a remote hilltop hamlet in Anakapalli district, Andhra Pradesh, received electricity for the first time since Independence. In celebration, they performed the Dhimsa dance, a vibrant expression of tribal culture.

About Dhimsa Dance:

• Origin & Region:
  • Dhimsa is a traditional tribal dance predominantly performed in Andhra Pradesh, especially in the tribal belts of the Eastern Ghats.
  • Its origin can be traced to the Koraput region (present-day Odisha and bordering Andhra Pradesh), primarily home to the Gond tribe.
• Communities Performing Dhimsa:
  • Tribes such as Bagata, Valmiki, Poraja, Khond, Gadaba, Kondadora, Mukadora, and Kotia actively perform this dance.
• Occasions:
  • Commonly performed during festivals, weddings, and the hunting festival in April.
  • Celebratory, spiritual, and social in nature, symbolizing unity and joy.
• Dance Formation and Movements:
  • Performed in circular formations with dancers holding each other's arms.
  • Emphasis on synchronized hand and leg movements.
  • Troupes usually consist of 20 or more dancers.
• Themes:
  • Dhimsa is a narrative dance that expresses tribal mythologies, folktales, cultural mores, economic activities, kinship, and marital life.
• Musical Instruments Used:
  • Dappu, Tudumu, Mori, Kidgi, Gilka, and Jodukommulu.
  • A combination of percussion and wind instruments drives the rhythm and variation in the dance.
• Varieties:
  • There are 12 known types of Dhimsa dances, each varying in pace, rhythm, and purpose.

Rural Electrification of Neelabandha Village:

• Background:
  • Neelabandha is located in Arla Panchayat of Rolugunta Mandal in Anakapalli district.
  • Consists of four households (approximately 20 individuals) who had been living without electricity since Independence.
• Implementation:
  • The electrification was part of the Andhra Pradesh government’s rural development drive to provide basic infrastructure to underdeveloped tribal villages.
  • Under the directions of District Collector Vijaya Krishnan, and CMD of APEPDCL, Prithvi Tej, the Eastern Power Distribution Company of Andhra Pradesh (EPDCL) carried out the electrification.
• Challenges Overcome:
  • The hamlet lacked motorable roads, making it difficult to transport materials.
  • Electricity poles had to be carried manually for over 6 km to reach the village.
• Outcome:
  • Free electricity was provided to the villagers, marking a major milestone in tribal welfare.
  • In a heartfelt celebration, the villagers performed Dhimsa under electric lights for the first time.

Issues Still Persisting:

• Infrastructure Deficits:
  • The village still lacks road connectivity, educational access, and healthcare facilities.
  • These gaps hinder children's ability to attend school and access essential services.
• Community Response:
  • Local leaders, including CPI(M) district committee member K. Govind, welcomed the electrification but urged the government to address remaining developmental needs.

In News:

The Union Budget 2025–26 announced the launch of the Gyan Bharatam Mission, a significant cultural initiative aimed at the survey, documentation, digitization, and conservation of over one crore manuscripts across India.

Key Details:

• A special national mission focusing on India’s manuscript heritage preserved in:
  • Academic institutions
  • Libraries
  • Museums
  • Private collections
• Objective:
  To document and conserve more than one crore manuscripts, centralize them into a national digital repository, and make them accessible to researchers, students, and institutions globally.
• Significance:
  • Facilitates knowledge-sharing through digitization.
  • Promotes India's traditional knowledge systems.
  • Enhances academic and historical research in the Indian knowledge domain.

What is a Manuscript?

• A manuscript is a handwritten composition on materials such as:
  • Palm leaf, paper, cloth, bark, or metal.
• Must be at least 75 years old and possess scientific, historical, or aesthetic value.
• Printed texts and lithographs are not considered manuscripts.
• Manuscripts may exist in hundreds of languages and scripts, e.g.:
  • Sanskrit manuscripts written in Devanagari, Grantha, Oriya, and other scripts.
• Unlike epigraphs or official records (firmans, revenue documents), manuscripts hold knowledge content, not just historical data.

National Manuscripts Mission (NMM)

• Launched in 2003 under the Ministry of Culture, operated through the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA).
• Mandate: Identify, preserve, and make accessible India's manuscript wealth.
• Revival: The 2025–26 Budget seeks to rejuvenate NMM to implement the Gyan Bharatam Mission effectively.

Budgetary Provisions

• NMM allocation increased from ?3.5 crore to ?60 crore for FY 2025–26.
• Culture Ministry overall allocation:
  • ?3,360.96 crore, up from a revised estimate of ?3,260.93 crore.
• Other Key Allocations:
  • Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): ?1,278.49 crore
  • National Libraries and Archives: ?156.55 crore
  • Museums (National Museum, NGMA): ?126.63 crore
• Note: Allocations for centenary events, cultural collaborations have been reduced.

In News:

In 2024, at the age of 100, Libia Lobo Sardesai was awarded the Padma Shri for her pivotal role in Goa’s liberation struggle from Portuguese colonial rule.

About Libia Lobo Sardesai

• Born: 25 May 1924, in Portuguese-ruled Goa; raised in Mumbai.
• Profession: Freedom fighter, broadcaster, and Goa’s first Director of Tourism post-liberation.
• Legacy: Symbol of courage and resistance, known as the “voice of Goa’s liberation.”

Role in Goa’s Liberation Movement

• Involvement: Joined the Goan nationalist movement during her college years.
• Underground Radio:
  • From 1955 to 1961, Libia, along with her husband Vaman Sardesai and Nicolau Menezes, ran an underground radio station – initially called ‘Q’, later named:
    • Goenche Sodvonecho Awaz (Voice of Freedom of Goa) – Konkani
    • Voz de Liberdade – Portuguese
  • Operated from Amboli (Maharashtra) and Castle Rock (Karnataka) in the Western Ghats.
  • Purpose: Counter Portuguese censorship and propaganda; broadcast news, updates, and morale-boosting messages to Goans.
• Final Broadcast:
  • On 19 December 1961, Libia flew over Panaji in an IAF plane, announcing Goa’s liberation with the message:

“Rejoice brothers and sisters, Rejoice! Today, after 451 years of alien rule, Goa is free and united with the Motherland.”

Goa Liberation Movement: Background

• Colonial Rule: Goa was under Portuguese rule for over 451 years (from 1510 to 1961).
• Key Phases:
  • 1954: India imposed an economic blockade after Portuguese crackdown on satyagrahis.
  • August 1955: Mass satyagraha met with violent repression by Portuguese forces.
  • Censorship: Portuguese regime enforced total censorship; only official Portuguese narratives were allowed.
  • 1961 – Operation Vijay:
    • Initiated on 17 December 1961 by the Indian Army under Lt. Gen. J.N. Chaudhuri.
    • Portuguese forces surrendered by 19 December 1961, marking Goa’s official liberation.

Notable Leaders of the Movement

• Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia: Sparked initial resistance against Portuguese rule.
• Libia Lobo Sardesai: Voice of the resistance via underground broadcasting.
• Lt. Gen. J.N. Chaudhuri: Led military operations during Operation Vijay.

Significance

• Libia Lobo Sardesai represents the unsung contributions of civil resistance and communication warfare in India’s decolonization.
• Her work sustained nationalist morale, informed citizens under censorship, and shaped the narrative of a liberated Goa.

In News:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has resumed excavations at the ancient Buddhist site of Ratnagiri in Odisha’s Jajpur district, unveiling monumental discoveries that underline its rich religious, cultural, and maritime legacy. This renewed effort comes more than 60 years after the site was first excavated between 1958 and 1961.

About Ratnagiri

• Meaning: Ratnagiri translates to “Hill of Jewels.”
• Location: Situated on a hill between the Brahmani and Birupa rivers, northeast of Bhubaneswar.
• Part of the Diamond Triangle: Along with Lalitgiri and Udaygiri, Ratnagiri forms Odisha’s famed “Diamond Triangle” of Buddhist heritage sites.
• Historical Period: Flourished between the 5th and 13th centuries CE, peaking under the Bhauma-Kara dynasty (8th–10th century CE).
• Buddhist School: An important centre for Mahayana and especially Vajrayana (Tantrayana) Buddhism.
• It possibly rivalled Nalanda in prominence as a Buddhist learning centre.
• The monastery complex at Ratnagiri is the only one in India with a curvilinear roof, once housing about 500 monks.