In News:

• The Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR) in Uttarakhand, famed globally for its tigers, has recently emerged as a crucial sanctuary for raptors, with a preliminary survey confirming the presence of 30 species of birds of prey.
• Conducted jointly by the State Forest Department and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the survey has documented several rare and threatened species, including the Pallid Fish Eagle, whose nesting in the region is extremely rare.

Corbett Tiger Reserve: Overview

• Location: Foothills of the Himalayas, Uttarakhand.
• Established: Originally as Hailey National Park in 1936; first national park in India and the first to be included under Project Tiger.
• Terrain: Undulating with valleys; rivers Ramganga, Pallaen, and Sonanadi traverse the reserve.
• Vegetation: North Indian tropical moist and dry deciduous forests, with sal and mixed forests, interspersed with grasslands and riparian vegetation.
• Ecological Significance: A vital ecological corridor supporting both tiger populations and diverse avian species.

Pallid Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus)

• Common Names: Pallas’s Sea Eagle, Band-Tailed Fish Eagle.
• Size & Appearance: Large, brownish sea eagle.
• Habitat: Near lakes, rivers, and marshes, ranging from lowlands to 5,000 metres elevation.
• Diet: Primarily fish, but also opportunistically hunts other prey.
• Breeding: Builds large nests in tall trees, usually near water bodies.
• Distribution: East Palearctic regions — Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia, China, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
• Conservation Status: Endangered (IUCN Red List).
• Threats: Habitat degradation, pollution, overfishing, and human disturbances.
• Significance in CTR: The discovery of a nesting site indicates active breeding, highlighting the reserve as a safe habitat for this threatened raptor.

Raptor Diversity in CTR

• Total Species Documented: 30 species of raptors, including both resident and migratory birds.
• Nesting Species: Evidence of nests from nine raptor species, including:
  • Crested Serpent Eagle
  • Hawk Eagle
  • Red-Headed Vulture
  • Indian Spotted Eagle
  • White-Rumped Vulture
  • Egyptian Vulture
  • Indian Vulture
• Significance: The presence of nests indicates active breeding, confirming CTR as a protected and thriving habitat for raptors.

Conservation and Ecological Implications

• The discovery emphasizes CTR’s dual role as a tiger reserve and a key sanctuary for avian predators.
• Historical declines in vulture populations due to habitat disruption and veterinary drug use underscore the importance of protected habitats like CTR.
• CTR provides a superior ecological corridor, allowing threatened and migratory species to breed and sustain populations.
• Ongoing surveys aim to collect species profiles, population counts, and nesting specifics, forming the basis for targeted conservation strategies.

In News:

• The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has launched the Swachh Shehar Jodi (SSJ) initiative, a structured mentorship and collaborative action program under the Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban (SBM-U).
• This initiative pairs top-performing mentor cities with low-performing mentee cities to facilitate knowledge-sharing, peer learning, and replication of best practices in sanitation and waste management.

Objectives                             

The primary aim of the SSJ initiative is to:

• Support low-performing cities in improving their sanitation outcomes.
• Replicate tested best practices in waste management and urban cleanliness.
• Foster peer learning, experience sharing, and collaborative urban transformation.
• Ensure no city is left behind in the spirit of Antyodaya, promoting inclusive urban development.

Structure of the Initiative

• Mentor Cities: Selected from the Super Swachh League, which comprises cities consistently ranking 1st, 2nd, or 3rd in Swachh Survekshan (SS) 2022, 2023, and 2024 across various population categories. Additional mentors include promising clean cities identified in SS 2024.
• Mentee Cities: Selected from the lowest ranks in their State’s cumulative SS rankings, with preference for geographical proximity to mentor cities.
• Scale: The initiative involves 72 mentor cities paired with around 200 mentee cities. Nearly 300 Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) were signed simultaneously to formalize these partnerships.

Implementation Approach

• 100-Day Program: Each mentor–mentee pair develops an action plan with clear milestones, focusing on knowledge transfer and implementation of best practices.
• Capacity Building Funds: Both mentor and mentee cities can utilize funds allocated under SBM-U 2.0, supplemented by state contributions or other sources.
• Policy Support: MoHUA provides strategic guidance and monitoring to ensure effective implementation.
• Evaluation: Progress will be assessed through Swachh Survekshan 2026, measuring improvements in sanitation performance.

Significance

• Represents one of the largest time-bound mentorship frameworks in urban sanitation in India.
• Encourages citizen engagement, resilient governance, and operational excellence.
• Promotes scaling of successful urban waste management practices across diverse cities.
• Aligns with the broader vision of Swachh Bharat Mission by building capacity, capabilities, and collaborative urban governance.

In News:

In a remarkable botanical discovery, researchers have identified a new species of coffee plant, Ophiorrhizaechinata, in the biodiversity-rich shola forests of Devikulam, located in the Idukki district of Kerala. The finding underscores the ecological richness of the Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the world’s eight “hottest hotspots” of biological diversity.

About Ophiorrhizaechinata

• Ophiorrhizaechinata is a newly discovered species belonging to the Rubiaceae family, which also includes the well-known coffee plant (Coffea species).
• The discovery was made by botanists from Sacred Heart College, Thevara, St. Teresa’s College, Ernakulam, and St. Thomas College, Thrissur, and has been published in the Nordic Journal of Botany.
• The plant grows in the ecotone region — the transitional zone between evergreen forests and grasslands — at an altitude of about 1,630 metres above sea level.
• So far, the species has been recorded only from its type locality in Devikulam, with an area of occupancy less than 4 sq. km and a population of around 35 plants, indicating its extremely limited distribution.

Biological Characteristics and Significance

• The species is closely related to Ophiorrhizamungos, commonly known as Indian Snake Root, which has long been used in traditional medicine for its anticancer and anti-venom properties.
• Given this close genetic relationship, researchers believe O. echinata may possess valuable medicinal potential, warranting further phytochemical and pharmacological studies.
• Its presence in the shola ecosystem—a habitat known for high endemism and speciation—highlights the ecological uniqueness and evolutionary importance of such forest environments.

Ecological and Conservation Importance

• The discovery reinforces the Western Ghats’ status as a centre of endemism, particularly for the Rubiaceae family, to which over ten coffee-related species are native in India.
• The limited distribution and small population make O. echinatavulnerable to habitat loss and anthropogenic pressures such as deforestation, tourism, and climate change.
• Scientists emphasize the need for urgent habitat conservation measures and in-situ protection to ensure the species’ survival, along with further research on its chemical composition and ecological interactions.

Coffee Diversity in India

• India produced approximately 3.63 lakh metric tonnes of coffee in 2024–25, mainly of Arabica and Robusta varieties.
• However, the discovery of Ophiorrhizaechinata adds to the botanical richness of native coffee-related plants found in the Western Ghats. According to the Coffee Board of India, over 100 coffee plant species are known globally, of which more than ten occur naturally in the Western Ghats region.

In News:

• The Ayodhya title dispute judgment—a landmark decision of the Supreme Court—was founded on the principle of “preponderance of probabilities”, a key evidentiary standard in civil law. Former
• Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud (part of the 2019 constitutional bench) noted that the verdict was based not on religious sentiment or historical conjecture, but on civil law principles of possession and probability regarding ownership of the inner and outer courtyards of the disputed site.

Understanding the Principle of Preponderance of Probability

• The preponderance of probability is the standard of proof used in civil proceedings to determine whether a fact or claim is more likely to be true than false.
• It represents a balance of likelihoods, where the court weighs the evidence from both sides and accepts the version that appears more probable based on the available proof.
• Unlike the criminal law standard of “beyond a reasonable doubt”, which requires a very high degree of certainty before convicting an accused, the civil standard merely requires showing that a claim is more likely than not.

Key Features

• A fact is considered proved if the court believes it exists on the balance of probabilities, as defined under Section 3 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872.
• The party bearing the burden of proof (typically the plaintiff) must present evidence that outweighs the opposing party’s version.
• The court does not demand absolute proof but relies on weighing evidence and drawing reasonable inferences.

This principle was elaborated in the case Narayan Ganesh Dastane v. Sucheta Narayan Dastane (1975), where the Supreme Court held that civil cases are determined based on which side’s evidence appears more credible, not necessarily conclusive.

Application in Civil Law

The preponderance of probability is the cornerstone of civil litigation, especially in matters relating to:

• Property and ownership disputes
• Contract enforcement
• Tort claims
• Family law and matrimonial matters

For instance, in a breach of contract case, a plaintiff only needs to establish that it is more likely than not that the contract was violated, rather than proving it beyond all possible doubt.

Ayodhya Judgment: Application of Civil Law Principles

In the Ayodhya title dispute case (2019), the Supreme Court applied the civil law test of possession and preponderance of probabilities to resolve competing claims over the disputed land.
The Court’s approach was rooted in legal reasoning rather than theological or emotive considerations.

Key Legal Reasoning

• The Court examined historical records, revenue documents, and testimonies to determine who had better evidence of possession of the inner and outer courtyards.
• The verdict concluded that while both Hindu and Muslim communities had worshipped at the site, the Hindus had stronger evidence of continued possession of the outer courtyard and belief in the Ram Janmabhoomi.
• The Muslim parties could not sufficiently establish exclusive possession of the inner courtyard before 1857.
• Hence, the balance of probabilities favored the Hindu claimants for ownership and management rights of the site.

Importantly, the judgment relied purely on civil law principles of possession and balance of probabilities, not on any assertion that the mosque’s construction was a desecration—a claim that does not feature in the 2019 verdict, despite later commentary.

Significance of the Principle

• Reinforces the objectivity of civil adjudication, where factual probabilities outweigh moral or religious narratives.
• Demonstrates the distinction between civil and criminal standards of proof in Indian jurisprudence.
• Ensures fairness in property disputes, where ownership is determined by evidence and not sentiment.
• Serves as a model case for the application of the Indian Evidence Act in balancing complex historical and legal claims.

In News:

The Government of India has issued detailed operational guidelines for setting up around 72,300 public electric vehicle (EV) charging stations across the country, backed by an allocation of ?2,000 crore under the broader ?10,900 crore PM E-DRIVE Scheme. This initiative marks a major step towards achieving sustainable mobility and reducing India’s dependence on fossil fuels.

About the PM E-DRIVE Scheme

• The PM E-DRIVE (Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement) scheme was launched in October 2024 by the Ministry of Heavy Industries (MHI).
• It is a flagship program designed to accelerate EV adoption, strengthen charging infrastructure, and develop a robust domestic manufacturing ecosystem.
• The scheme is operational from October 1, 2024, to March 31, 2026.

Objectives

• Promote mass mobility through electrified public transport systems.
• Encourage domestic manufacturing of EVs and components under the Phased Manufacturing Programme (PMP).
• Support the creation of a comprehensive network of charging stations.
• Reduce vehicular pollution and enhance urban air quality.
• Facilitate the transition to a self-reliant (Aatmanirbhar) EV ecosystem.

Key Components of the Scheme

• Demand Incentives
  • Financial support for purchasing e-2 wheelers, e-3 wheelers, e-ambulances, e-trucks, and electric buses.
  • Focus on promoting electric public transport and commercial fleets.
• Grants for Capital Assets
  • Funding for electric buses, public charging infrastructure, and testing facilities under MHI.
  • States are encouraged to extend additional fiscal and non-fiscal incentives, such as road-tax waivers, permit exemptions, and reduced toll or parking fees.
• Administrative Support: Includes costs for Information, Education & Communication (IEC) activities and Project Management Agency (PMA) fees to ensure smooth implementation.

Implementation Framework

The scheme will be monitored by the Project Implementation and Sanctioning Committee (PISC), chaired by the Secretary, Heavy Industries.

• PISC will oversee progress, address challenges, revise incentives when necessary, and approve technical guidelines.
• Only vehicles registered under the Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR) and equipped with advanced battery technology are eligible for incentives.

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) serves as the Nodal Agency for:

• Demand aggregation for EV charging infrastructure.
• Development of a Unified EV Super App to provide real-time charger availability, slot booking, payments, and deployment tracking — promoting digital accessibility for users.

Guidelines for EV Charging Infrastructure (2025)

The Ministry of Heavy Industries issued a tiered subsidy framework to promote the establishment of EV charging stations nationwide.

Subsidy Structure

• 100% subsidy on upstream infrastructure and charging equipment for:Government offices, residential colonies, hospitals, and educational institutions (if open for public use).
• 80% subsidy on upstream infrastructure and 70% on equipment for:High-traffic public locations such as railway stations, airports, metro stations, bus terminals, toll plazas, and municipal parking lots.
• 80% subsidy on upstream infrastructure for:Shopping malls, markets, highways, expressways, and battery-swapping stations.

Deployment Priority

The scheme prioritizes:

• Cities with over one million population,
• State capitals, smart cities, metro-linked satellite towns, and
• High-density transport corridors.

Eligible government agencies are to designate nodal bodies to identify sites, aggregate demand, and submit proposals via a dedicated online portal.

BHEL will act as the Project Implementation Agency (PIA), with subsidies released in two tranches linked to performance and compliance milestones.