In News:

Health authorities in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, have issued a public alert after a spike in Legionnaires’ disease cases in Sydney. The outbreak is suspected to be linked to contaminated air-conditioning systems in the city.

About Legionnaires’ Disease

Aspect                           Details

Cause                             Legionella bacteria, found in freshwater and man-made water systems

Type                                A severe form of pneumonia

Related Disease      Pontiac fever – a milder, flu-like respiratory illness caused by the same bacteria

Key Features

• Symptoms:
  • High fever, cough, shortness of breath
  • Muscle pain, headaches, confusion
  • Diarrhoea or nausea in some cases
• Transmission:
  • Not person-to-person
  • Spread through inhalation of contaminated aerosols (e.g., from cooling towers, air conditioners, hot tubs)
• Risk Factors:
  • Elderly individuals
  • Smokers
  • People with weakened immune systems or chronic lung conditions

Treatment and Prevention

• Treatment: Requires antibiotic therapy
• Vaccine: No vaccine currently available
• Prevention:
  • Regular maintenance and disinfection of water systems
  • Monitoring air-conditioning and cooling systems

In News:

British startup Pulsar Fusion is developing Sunbird, a nuclear fusion-powered rocket that could significantly reduce travel time to outer planets like Mars and Pluto. An orbital demonstration is planned for 2027.

Key Features of Sunbird

• Maximum Speed: Up to 805,000 km/h, surpassing the Parker Solar Probe (692,000 km/h), the fastest human-made object to date.
• Travel Efficiency: Could enable missions to Pluto in just 4 years, and cut travel time to Mars by nearly 50%.
• Payload Capacity: Capable of delivering up to 2,000 kg to Mars in six months.
• Functionality: Unlike chemical rockets like SpaceX’s Starship, Sunbird would act as an interplanetary booster, attaching to spacecraft and possibly operating between charging stations in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Mars orbit.

About Nuclear Fusion Propulsion

Nuclear Fusion aims to replicate the process that powers stars — the fusion of atomic nuclei to release energy. Unlike nuclear fission, fusion is cleaner, offers higher energy output, and produces minimal radioactive waste.

Types of Nuclear Propulsion Systems

Propulsion Type                                                           Description

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP)             Uses a nuclear reactor to heat liquid hydrogen which

                                                                            turns to plasma and produces thrust. Provides high exhaust

                                                                            velocity and can increase payload efficiency 2–3 times

                                                                            over chemical rockets. Ground tests began in the 1950s.

Nuclear Electric Propulsion (NEP)                Converts reactor heat into electricity to power ion thrusters,

                                                                            which gradually reach high speeds. Components include a

                                                                                               compact reactor core, electric generator, heat rejection

                                                                                               system, and electric propulsion system. Unlike solar power,

                                                                           nuclear sources ensure consistent energy beyond Mars.

Challenges in Fusion Rocket Development

• Fusion systems are currently large and heavy, posing difficulties in miniaturisation for spaceflight.
• Fusion on Earth is hard to replicate due to atmospheric constraints; space offers a more natural environment for fusion reactions.

Global Efforts and Timeline

Apart from Pulsar Fusion, companies like Helicity Space and General Atomics (backed by NASA and Lockheed Martin) are also advancing fusion-powered space propulsion systems, with testing planned around 2027.

In News:

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru have developed a novel vanadium-based nanozyme that effectively controls abnormal blood clotting by reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS). This innovation holds promise for managing life-threatening conditions like pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) and ischemic stroke.

Scientific Background:

• Normal Blood Clotting: Platelets are specialized blood cells that form clots at injury sites through a process called haemostasis, involving activation by physiological chemicals like collagen and thrombin.
• Problem of Abnormal Clotting: In conditions like COVID-19 and PTE, oxidative stress increases, leading to elevated ROS levels. This causes hyperactivation of platelets, resulting in excessive clot formation (thrombosis) — a leading cause of death globally.

Nanozyme Innovation by IISc:

• What is a Nanozyme?

An engineered nanomaterial that mimics the action of natural enzymes, in this case, glutathione peroxidase, which neutralizes ROS.

• Material Used: Vanadium pentoxide (V?O?) nanozymes, particularly those with spherical morphology, were found to be the most efficient.
• Mechanism: The redox-active surface of vanadium nanozymes catalytically reduces ROS, preventing unwanted platelet aggregation.

Testing and Results:

• In vitro testing: Human blood platelets were activated with physiological agonists. Nanozymes were tested for their ability to curb excessive aggregation.
• In vivo testing (mouse model of PTE):
  • Nanozyme injection led to reduced thrombosis.
  • Improved survival rates without observable toxicity.
  • Animals were monitored for 5 days post-treatment for health parameters.

Future Prospects:

• Researchers aim to test the nanozyme's potential against ischemic strokes, which also result from vascular blockages.
• Encouraging results with human platelets indicate the possibility of clinical trials in the near future.

In News:

Western Europe is experiencing its largest diphtheria outbreak in 70 years, with cases predominantly among vulnerable groups such as migrants and the homeless. The outbreak, which began in 2022, has raised concerns over disease surveillance, migrant healthcare, and immunisation coverage.

Key Facts from the Outbreak

• As per a study in the New England Journal of Medicine, 536 cases and three deaths have been reported across Europe since 2022.
• Most cases were found among young males (average age: 18) who had recently migrated, particularly from Afghanistan and Syria.
• 98% of strains exhibited close genetic similarities, suggesting a common transmission point during migration journeys or in accommodation facilities, not in the countries of origin.
• A genetic match between the 2022 strains and a recent 2025 case in Germany indicates that the bacteria is still circulating silently in the region.

Recommendations from Health Experts

• Enhance vaccination drives, particularly among high-risk and underserved populations.
• Improve awareness among healthcare providers, especially those working with migrants and the homeless.
• Ensure better access to antibiotics and diphtheria antitoxins.
• Strengthen disease surveillance and contact tracing mechanisms.

About Diphtheria

Feature                           Details

Cause                           Corynebacterium diphtheriae (produces a potent toxin)

Mode of Spread          Respiratory droplets, contact with infected sores or ulcers

Affected Areas            Primarily the respiratory tract, but also the skin in some cases

Symptoms                  Sore throat, fever, swollen lymph nodes, weakness; grey membrane in throat

Severe Impact           Can lead to breathing difficulties, heart and kidney damage, and neurological issues if untreated

Treatment                  Diphtheria Antitoxin (DAT), antibiotics, and supportive care

Fatality Rate            Up to 30% in unvaccinated individuals; higher in children

Prevention               Vaccination (DPT/DTP) is the most effective preventive measure

In News:

Union Minister Dr. Jitendra Singh launched BharatGen, India’s first indigenously developed, government-funded Multimodal Large Language Model (LLM) at the BharatGen Summit 2025, marking a significant step in India’s AI innovation landscape.

About BharatGen:

• BharatGen is a Multimodal LLM designed to support 22 Indian languages and various content formats—text, speech, and image.
• Developed under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) and implemented by the TIH Foundation for IoT and IoE at IIT Bombay.
• Supported by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), it is a collaborative effort involving premier academic institutions, researchers, and innovators.

Key Features:

• Multilingual and multimodal capabilities (text, voice, image inputs).
• Open-source platform to encourage accessible innovation.
• Trained on Indian datasets to reflect Indian linguistic and cultural diversity.
• Integrated applications across critical sectors like healthcare, education, governance, and agriculture.
• Aims to deliver region-specific AI solutions rooted in Indian values and societal contexts.

Implementation Mechanism:

• Executed through 25 Technology Innovation Hubs (TIHs) across India.
• Four of these TIHs have been upgraded to Technology Translational Research Parks (TTRPs) for real-world deployment.
• Guided by four pillars: technology development, entrepreneurship, human resource development, and international collaboration.

In News:

India has taken a major step toward self-reliance in Artificial Intelligence with the expansion of its national AI compute infrastructure and the selection of three new startups to build indigenous foundation models under the IndiaAI Mission.

Key Highlights

• Compute Infrastructure Boost:India’s total GPU capacity has now surpassed 34,000 units, up from the initial 10,000-target. A fresh addition of 15,916 GPUs to the existing 18,417 empanelled GPUs brings the total to 34,333 GPUs, now available through the IndiaAI Compute Portal (operational since March 2025).
• Subsidised Access:These GPUs are made available at a subsidised rate of ?67/hour, well below the global average of ?115/hour. This has been made possible through private sector empanelment instead of government-built data centres. Service providers receive up to 40% capital subsidy, enabling rapid infrastructure rollout.
• Empanelled Providers:Seven private companies were empanelled for compute provisioning:
  • Cyfuture India Pvt. Ltd.
  • Ishan Infotech Ltd.
  • Locuz Enterprise Solutions Ltd.
  • Netmagic IT Services Pvt. Ltd.
  • Sify Digital Services Ltd.
  • Vensysco Technologies Ltd.
  • Yotta Data Services Pvt. Ltd.

Foundation Model Development

Under the IndiaAI Foundation Model initiative, three new startups have joined Sarvam AI (selected earlier in April 2025) to build India-specific Large Language Models (LLMs):

• Soket AI: Will develop a 120-billion parameter open-source model focused on Indian languages and use cases in defence, healthcare, and education.
• Gnani AI: Building a 14-billion parameter Voice AI model for real-time, multilingual speech recognition and reasoning.
• Gan AI: Developing a 70-billion parameter multilingual TTS (text-to-speech) model aiming for "superhuman" capabilities surpassing global benchmarks.
• Sarvam AI: Previously selected to create a 120-billion parameter Sovereign AI model, following the release of Sarvam-1 (2B parameters) and Sarvam-M (24B parameters).

These foundation models will be trained on Indian datasets and tailored for governance, public service delivery, and regional language support.

AI Kosh& Innovation Initiatives

• AI Kosh: A public dataset platform with 367 datasets uploaded, enabling research and model training using India-relevant data.
• IndiaAI I4C CyberGuard Hackathon: In collaboration with the Ministry of Home Affairs, AI models were developed for identifying cybercrime patterns from complex inputs like handwritten FIRs and audio calls on the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal.
• Startup Innovation & Skill Development: Funding support, AI labs in Tier-II cities, and talent development programs are part of a broader push to promote innovation and reverse brain drain.

About IndiaAI Mission

• Launched by: Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (MeitY)
• Cabinet Approval: March 2024 with a budget of over ?10,000 crore
• Objectives:
  • Develop indigenous AI capabilities and infrastructure
  • Democratize AI access for governance, startups, and citizens
  • Promote ethical and safe AI use
  • Position India among the global AI leaders

In News:

In a significant milestone for India’s medical technology sector, the Technology Development Board (TDB) under the Department of Science and Technology (DST) has extended support for the development of the country’s first indigenously manufactured mechanical thrombectomy device for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke.

What is a Mechanical Thrombectomy Device?

The device is a minimally invasive medical tool designed to treat acute ischemic stroke, which occurs due to a blockage in a large blood vessel in the brain. Unlike conventional thrombolytic drugs that dissolve clots chemically, this device physically extracts the clot, thereby restoring blood flow swiftly and reducing the risk of severe brain damage or paralysis.

Development and Manufacturing

This pathbreaking innovation was developed by S3V Vascular Technologies Ltd, based in Mysuru, with financial backing from the TDB. The manufacturing takes place at an advanced, high-precision production facility within the Medical Devices Park in Oragadam, Tamil Nadu.

Key Features and Technological Highlights

• Indigenous Design: S3V is the first Indian company to conceptualize and produce stroke-intervention tools such as microcatheters, aspiration catheters, guidewires, and stent retrievers.
• R&D and Patents: The company has filed multiple patents, particularly for innovations in clot retriever head design and advanced catheter structures.
• Training and Capacity Building: A simulator-based training program has been initiated to train young medical professionals, with a focus on outreach in Tier-II cities.
• Global Compliance: The device aims to meet CE and USFDA standards, paving the way for international exports and aligning with global quality benchmarks.

Significance for India

• Reduces Import Dependency: The device addresses India’s reliance on expensive, imported stroke-care equipment.
• Cost-Effective Healthcare: By making stroke treatment more affordable, it enhances access to quality care for economically weaker sections.
• Supports Public Health Initiatives: It is expected to be integrated into government schemes like Ayushman Bharat, strengthening the country’s universal healthcare mission.
• Boosts MedTech Ecosystem: This innovation is a major stride in positioning India as a global player in the high-end medical devices sector.

In News:

Researchers from the University of Oxford and Universidad de Sevilla have demonstrated quantum supremacy using a simple mathematical game based on the odd-cycle graph colouring problem. The study, published in Physical Review Letters, marks a significant milestone in quantum computing.

What is Quantum Supremacy?

Quantum supremacy refers to the ability of a quantum computer to perform a task that is practically impossible for classical computers to solve efficiently. This advancement showcases the unique capabilities of qubits, which leverage two core principles:

• Superposition: Qubits can represent both 0 and 1 simultaneously.
• Entanglement: Measurement of one qubit instantly affects another, even over a distance.

These principles enable exponential scaling of computational power. For instance, a 50-qubit quantum computer could potentially outperform the most powerful classical supercomputers.

The Odd-Cycle Game: A Novel Approach

The team implemented a game inspired by graph theory:

• Players (Alice and Bob) are tasked with colouring an odd-numbered cycle (e.g., triangle) using only two colours such that adjacent points differ in colour.
• Mathematically, this is impossible in classical terms for odd cycles due to inevitable repetition of colours.

In the experiment:

• Two strontium atoms placed 2 meters apart were entangled using lasers.
• A referee sent each atom a "question" (mapped to a point on the cycle).
• Players performed quantum operations based on the questions and returned either 0 or 1 (representing colours).

The experiment was repeated 101,000 times, covering circles from 3 to 27 points.

Results and Significance

• Classical win rate: 83.3% for 3-point cycles.
• Quantum win rate: 97.8%, clearly surpassing classical limits.
• Quantum supremacy was evident up to 19-point circles.
• The entanglement correlation was the strongest ever recorded between two separated quantum systems.

Comparison with Previous Demonstrations

• Google’s Sycamore (2019): Used 53 superconducting qubits for a complex problem called random circuit sampling.
• China’s Jiuzhang: Used Gaussian boson sampling.
• In contrast, this new approach used just two entangled qubits, making it simpler, efficient, and easier to verify.

Practical Implications

This simplified game-based model of quantum advantage could have real-world applications in problems where coordination is needed without communication—such as the "rendezvous problem". Quantum systems can dramatically reduce search steps compared to classical ones (e.g., Grover’s algorithm can reduce 1 million steps to 1,000).

In News:

The Biomass Mission is a new Earth observation mission by the European Space Agency (ESA) aimed at enhancing our understanding of the global carbon cycle through accurate forest biomass measurements.

Launch Details:

• Rocket: Vega-C
• Launch Site: Europe’s Spaceport, French Guiana
• Orbit: Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO) at an altitude of ~666 km
• Scheduled Launch Date: 29 April 2025 (subject to final checks)

Key Features:

• First satellite to use P-band radar (long-wavelength synthetic aperture radar).
• Capable of penetrating dense forest canopies to scan tree trunks, branches, and stems — where most of a tree’s carbon is stored.
• Will generate 3D maps of the world’s tropical forests.

Mission Objectives:

• Measure above-ground forest biomass and forest height.
• Create five global biomass maps over its five-year mission.
• Monitor changes in forests to assess their role in carbon sequestration and climate regulation.

Scientific Importance:

• Forests absorb ~8 billion tonnes of CO? annually and are often referred to as "Earth’s green lungs."
• By analyzing forest carbon storage and changes, the mission will contribute significantly to:
  • Monitoring climate change
  • Supporting carbon accounting
  • Improving air quality assessments

Phases of the Mission:

1. Initial Phase: Produces detailed 3D forest maps globally.
2. Second Phase: Generates global estimates of forest height and biomass.

Relevance to Climate Action:

• Helps in quantifying carbon uptake and release.
• Supports global climate models and carbon budgeting.
• Aids in policy-making for sustainable forest management.

In News:

A US biotech company, Colossal Biosciences, claims to have genetically engineered three grey wolf pups to carry traits of the extinct dire wolf, calling it a de-extinction.

What is De-Extinction?

De-extinction is the process of reviving extinct species using advanced biotechnological methods such as:

• Gene editing (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9),
• Cloning (e.g., somatic cell nuclear transfer),
• Ancient DNA sequencing and genome reconstruction,
• Synthetic biology to reintroduce key traits of extinct organisms.

Colossal Biosciences and the Dire Wolf Project

In late 2024, a U.S.-based biotechnology firm, Colossal Biosciences, announced the birth of three genetically engineered wolf pups—Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi—claimed to be the world’s first successful case of "functional de-extinction."

About the Dire Wolf

• Scientific name: Aenocyon dirus
• Habitat: Grasslands and forests of North America during the Pleistocene Epoch
• Extinction: ~12,500–13,000 years ago
• Characteristics: 25% larger than modern grey wolves; strong jaws to hunt megafauna like bison and horses; light-colored dense fur; social, pack-hunting predators.

Scientific Process Involved

• DNA Extraction: Ancient DNA was recovered from dire wolf fossils (13,000 to 72,000 years old).
• Genome Reconstruction: Sequencing and comparative analysis showed ~99.5% similarity between dire wolves and modern grey wolves.
• Gene Editing: Scientists edited 20 genes in grey wolves to replicate dire wolf traits like:
  • White, thick fur
  • Increased body mass
  • Enhanced musculature and coat pattern
• Cloning: Modified DNA was used to create embryos via somatic cell nuclear transfer.
• Surrogacy: Embryos were implanted in large domestic dogs. Of several attempts, three pups survived.

Scientific and Ethical Concerns

• Experts argue these are not true dire wolves but genetically edited grey wolves with some dire wolf-like traits.
• Critics highlight the absence of peer-reviewed publication, limited understanding of epigenetic and behavioral factors, and the artificial environment in which the pups are raised.
• Colossal terms the process "functional de-extinction", meaning re-creating genetically and ecologically similar organisms, not exact replicas.

Ecological and Conservation Relevance

• Colossal claims the technology could help endangered species like the red wolf (native to the southeastern U.S.), threatened by habitat loss and hybridization with coyotes.
• Four clones of red wolf–coyote hybrids have been produced with potential use in restoring genetic diversity.
• The company aims to democratize conservation biotechnology, pledging to share tools with global conservationists and working with Native American communities.

Contemporary Debates

• Over 60 environmental groups have protested proposed U.S. legislation to delist grey wolves from the Endangered Species Act, warning of ecological consequences.
• Scientists urge caution, stressing that true resurrection of extinct species requires more than gene editing, as behavior, evolutionary context, and environmental adaptation cannot be synthetically replicated.

In News:

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST-Kashmir) has successfully developed India’s first gene-edited sheep, marking a significant breakthrough in the field of animal biotechnology.

Key Highlights:

• Institution Involved: Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST), Srinagar.
• Technology Used:
  • CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing — a precision genome editing tool that won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
  • Gene editing was conducted without insertion of foreign DNA, thus the sheep is non-transgenic and differs from traditional GMOs.
• Gene Targeted: The myostatin gene, which regulates muscle growth, was edited to enhance muscle mass.
• Result: Muscle mass increased by 30%, a trait absent in Indian sheep breeds but seen in select European breeds like the Texel.
• Significance:
  • Improved meat yield and quality in sheep.
  • Potential for disease-resistant and higher-reproduction-rate livestock in the future.
  • Supports India’s evolving biotech policy by promoting non-transgenic, gene-edited organisms that are more likely to receive regulatory acceptance.
  • Aligns with goals of sustainability and food security by enhancing productivity per animal.
• Regulatory & Safety Aspects:
  • Research adhered to international biosafety protocols.
  • Sponsored by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
• Legacy & Research Background:
  • Developed after 4 years of dedicated research.
  • Led by Prof. Riaz Ahmad Shah, also known for creating India’s first cloned Pashmina goat, Noori, in 2012, and contributing to the world’s first cloned buffalo at NDRI, Karnal.

Implications for the Future:

• Opens doors for precision breeding in livestock to boost India’s animal husbandry sector.
• Strengthens India’s position in advanced genomic research and supports the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat in biotechnology.
• Awaits comprehensive regulatory framework for gene-edited animals, currently under government consideration.

In News:

Researchers at IIT Bombay have developed an advanced semi-transparent perovskite solar cell (PSC) layered over a traditional silicon solar cell. This results in a 4-terminal (4T) tandem solar cell that significantly boosts power conversion efficiency (PCE) to ~30%, compared to the current average of ~20% in conventional solar panels.

Key Features and Technology

• Structure: Tandem architecture using a bottom silicon sub-cell and a top layer of indigenously developed halide perovskite semiconductor.
• Material Efficiency: Halide perovskite is one of the most efficient light-absorbing materials and can be locally produced using available chemical resources.
• Cost & Efficiency Gains:
  • Potential to reduce solar power cost to ?1/kWh, down from ?2.5–4/kWh.
  • Offers 25–30% more efficiency compared to standard solar panels.
• Stability Improvements: Previously, PSCs degraded quickly. The new configuration extends lifespan up to 10 years, enhancing durability under heat and low-light conditions.

Strategic Significance for India

• Indigenous Manufacturing: Reduces dependence on imported raw materials, especially those dominated by China.
• Commercialization Plan:
  • Maharashtra government and MAHAGENCO exploring large-scale implementation.
  • ART-PV India Pvt. Ltd., a start-up from IIT Bombay's SINE, aims to deliver a commercial wafer-size solution by December 2027 using indigenous equipment.
• Applications:
  • Rooftop solar installations
  • Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV)
  • Vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (VIPV)

Clean Energy Linkage: IIT Bombay is also working with the Maharashtra government to develop green hydrogen solutions. The PSC’s high open-circuit voltage makes it suitable for solar-to-hydrogen (STH) applications, offering performance comparable to costly compound semiconductors but at lower cost and with locally accessible materials.

In News:

At its 2025 I/O Developer Conference, Google unveiled AI Matryoshka, a multi-layered artificial intelligence (AI) ecosystem powered by its latest Gemini 2.5 models. This marks a fundamental restructuring of Google’s platforms around AI, affecting users, developers, and enterprises.

What is AI Matryoshka?

• Concept: Named after the Russian nesting dolls, AI Matryoshka is a layered AI architecture where each outer application or interface draws intelligence from a core AI “brain.”
• Objective: To embed AI deeply and uniformly across Google’s services, enabling agentic, intelligent, and autonomous interactions.

Core AI Models: Gemini 2.5

• Gemini 2.5 Pro:
  • Advanced reasoning and mathematics capabilities.
  • Achieved high scores on USAMO 2025 (a premier U.S. math olympiad).
  • Features a mode called Deep Think for complex problem-solving.
• Gemini 2.5 Flash:
  • A more efficient, lightweight model using 20–30% fewer tokens.
  • Supports natural audio output and multi-speaker TTS in 24 languages.
  • Set to become the default model in Gemini applications.

Foundational Hardware: Ironwood TPUs

• Ironwood (7th Gen TPUs):
  • Delivers 42.5 exaFLOPS of compute power per pod.
  • Offers 10x performance boost over previous TPUs.
  • Supports large-scale training and deployment of generative AI models.

Generative Media Models

• Imagen 4: Advanced image generation.
• Veo 3: High-quality video generation.
• Lyria 2: Music creation using AI.
• Copyright Tools:
  • SynthID (watermarking) and SynthID Detector (verification) aim to address copyright concerns over the training data.

Developer Ecosystem

• Gemini API & Vertex AI:
  • Model Context Protocol (MCP): Enables agent-to-agent communication.
  • Thinking Budgets: Let developers allocate compute resources wisely.
  • Project Mariner: Tool for automating complex tasks.
  • Thought Summaries: Improves transparency of AI decisions.
• Coding Agent – Jules:
  • Beta launched globally.
  • Integrates with code repositories to write tests, build features, and fix bugs using Gemini 2.5 Pro.

User-Centric Features

• Search Integration (AI Mode):
  • Rolls out first in the U.S. with Deep Search generating cited, multimodal answers.
  • Offers virtual shopping try-ons and agentic checkout, raising privacy and data security concerns.
• Gemini App:
  • Available on Android and iOS with Live and image generation features.
  • Deep Research allows analysis of private documents and images, necessitating strong data protection protocols.
  • Integrated into Chrome (for Pro and Ultra users) for webpage summarization.
• Canvas Feature: A creative workspace for interactive infographics, quizzes, and audio content in 45 languages.

Subscription Tiers and Privacy Concerns

• Google AI Ultra Tier:
  • Offers premium access to advanced capabilities, including video generation with native audio.
  • Raises questions about "privacy premium" – whether better AI safety features will be available only to paying users.

In News:

India has been ranked 10th globally in terms of private sector investments in Artificial Intelligence (AI) in 2023, according to the Technology and Innovation Report 2025, released by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The report highlights the evolving global AI landscape and underscores India's growing role in frontier technologies.

About the Technology and Innovation Report

• Published by: UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).
• Objective: To provide policy-relevant insights on emerging issues in science, technology, and innovation (STI), especially from the perspective of developing countries.
• Theme of the 2025 Edition: “Inclusive Artificial Intelligence for Development”.
• Purpose: Aims to assist policymakers in formulating inclusive and equitable STI policies amid the rapid expansion of AI technologies.

Key Highlights of the 2025 Report

• India’s Position:
  • Ranked 10th globally for private AI investments, amounting to $1.4 billion in 2023.
  • Among developing countries, only India and China feature prominently in global AI investments.
  • India’s growing prominence reflects its rising technological capacity and startup ecosystem.
• Global Investment Trends:
  • The United States led global AI investment with $67 billion (70% of global private investment).
  • China ranked second with $7.8 billion.
  • The report reveals that just 100 companies, mainly from the US and China, account for 40% of global private R&D investment in AI, signifying a concentration of technological power.
• AI and Global Employment:
  • The report warns that up to 40% of global jobs could be influenced by AI-driven automation, necessitating adaptive policies, especially in the Global South.
• Governance Gaps:
  • 118 countries, mostly from the Global South, are not participating meaningfully in global AI governance dialogues, highlighting a digital divide in international policy spaces.
• Recommendations for Developing Countries:
  UNCTAD urges developing nations to strengthen three critical areas, termed “key leverage points”:
  • Infrastructure: Improve digital and physical infrastructure.
  • Data Ecosystems: Ensure data accessibility, quality, and sovereignty.
  • Human Capital and Skills: Invest in AI-related education and skilling.
• India’s Broader Performance:
  • Ranked 36th out of 170 countries on the Readiness for Frontier Technologies Index 2024, an improvement from 48th in 2022.

In News:

In a recent geopolitical development, Pakistan has reportedly discovered a significant deposit of Antimony in the Balochistan region — an area marred by conflict and instability. This finding holds both economic and strategic significance, given the growing global demand for rare and critical minerals.

About Antimony

• Chemical Element: Antimony (Symbol: Sb, Atomic Number: 51) is a metalloid, meaning it exhibits properties of both metals and non-metals.
• Physical Properties:
  • Solid at room temperature.
  • Poor conductor of heat and electricity.
  • Found in commercial forms such as ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cakes.

Geological Occurrence

• Primary Ore: The chief ore of Antimony is Stibnite (Sb?S?).
• Mode of Occurrence: Found in volcanic-associated deposits and deep-seated veins, formed under moderate to high temperature and pressure.
• Also commonly obtained as a byproduct from lead-zinc-silver mining operations.

Global Production Landscape

• China is the dominant global producer, accounting for over 88% of world production.
• Other notable producers include Russia, Bolivia, and Tajikistan.
• India currently does not have significant reserves or production of Antimony, making it dependent on imports for industrial use.

Key Industrial and Strategic Uses

• Electronics Industry:Used in manufacturing semiconductors, infrared detectors, and diodes.
• Alloys:
  • Alloyed with lead and other metals to increase hardness and strength.
  • Lead-antimony alloys are extensively used in lead-acid batteries.
• Defense and Printing:Utilized in the production of bullets, type metal for printing, and cable sheathing.
• Flame-Retardants and Ceramics:Antimony compounds are key ingredients in flame-retardant materials, as well as in paints, enamels, glass, and pottery.

In News:

In a significant milestone for India’s indigenous aviation sector, the Hansa-3 trainer aircraft has recently been approved for training aircrew for pilot licences. Notably, the production of this aircraft will now be undertaken by private industry, marking a step forward in India’s push for self-reliance in aviation technology and defence manufacturing.

About Hansa-3 Trainer Aircraft

• India’s First Indigenous Flying Trainer: The Hansa-3 is the country’s first indigenously developed light trainer aircraft.
• Developed by: The aircraft was designed and developed by the CSIR–National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Bengaluru, under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
• Intended Use: Specifically designed for flying clubs in India, it is well-suited for Commercial Pilot Licensing (CPL) training, owing to its cost-effectiveness and low fuel consumption.

Key Features and Technological Advancements

• Configuration: It is a two-seater, low-wing monoplane, optimized for pilot training missions.
• Engine: Powered by a Rotax Digital Control Engine, known for high efficiency and performance.
• Advanced Airframe: Incorporates Just-In-Time Prepreg (JIPREG) composite lightweight material, enhancing aerodynamic efficiency and reducing fuel use.
• Modern Cockpit: Equipped with a glass cockpit and bubble canopy, offering a wide panoramic view — critical for pilot situational awareness.
• Electronic Systems:
  • Electric Flaps for improved handling.
  • Advanced Electronic Fuel Injection System for automatic adjustment of fuel-air mixture across varying altitudes, enhancing performance and fuel economy.

Significance for India

• Promotes Atmanirbhar Bharat: The transition to private manufacturing aligns with the government’s vision of strengthening the domestic aerospace ecosystem under the Make in India initiative.
• Reduces Dependency: Reduces reliance on imported aircraft for pilot training, supporting India’s goal of strategic autonomy in aviation technology.
• Skill Development: Enhances the capacity of Indian flying schools and contributes to the growth of the civil aviation sector by producing more trained pilots domestically.

In News:

• An international team of astronomers, using NASA’s TESS mission, has discovered a new warm Jupiter-type exoplanet located over 1,000 light-years away.
• “Warm Jupiters” are gas giants that orbit their stars at moderate distances, experiencing higher temperatures than Jupiter but cooler than “hot Jupiters”.

About TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite)

• Launched: March 2018 by NASA.
• Objective: To discover thousands of exoplanets (planets outside our solar system) by observing the brightest dwarf stars in the sky.
• Successor to: NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope, which pioneered large-scale exoplanet discovery (2009–2018).

Working Principle:

• TESS uses the transit method:
  • It monitors periodic dips in star brightness, caused when a planet crosses (or transits) in front of its host star.
  • This reveals the size (diameter) of the exoplanet and helps estimate its orbital characteristics.
• Helps identify habitable zone planets, where liquid water may exist on Earth-like worlds.

Mission Highlights:

• Prime Mission Duration: Two years, completed on July 4, 2020.
• Covered nearly 75% of the sky, divided into 26 sectors.
• Discovered 66 confirmed exoplanets during the prime mission.
• Now operating under an extended mission, continuing to explore distant planetary systems.
• Finds planets of varied sizes and compositions, from rocky Earth-like bodies to gas giants.

In News:

In a major astronomical breakthrough, scientists have discovered 128 new moons orbiting Saturn, raising its total confirmed moon count to 274—the highest for any planet in the solar system. This discovery has been officially recognized by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

About the Discovery

• The moons were detected using the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope with a method called “shift and stack”, which enhances the visibility of faint objects moving across the sky.
• Most of the newly identified moons are irregular, small, and non-spherical, indicating a likely origin as captured asteroids or remnants of larger celestial bodies.
• Their clustered orbits suggest a history of violent collisions or fragmentation, possibly linked to the chaotic early evolution of the solar system.

Significance

• Confirms Saturn’s status as the planet with the most known moons, overtaking Jupiter (95 moons as of 2024).
• Enhances understanding of planetary formation, orbital dynamics, and the evolution of ring and satellite systems.
• May contribute to refining the scientific definition of a moon and deepen knowledge of irregular satellite formation in gas giants.

Key Facts about Saturn

• Position: Sixth planet from the Sun.
• Size: Second-largest planet after Jupiter.
• Type: Gas giant composed mainly of hydrogen and helium, with traces of methane and ammonia.
• Density: Approximately 0.69 g/cm³, the only planet less dense than water.
• Shape: Oblate due to rapid rotation—flattened at poles, bulging at the equator.
• Rings: Made of ice, dust, and rocky debris.
• Orbit: About 9.59 AU (1,434 million km) from the Sun; orbital period ~29.45 Earth years.
• Weather: Hosts extreme storms like the Great White Spot, recurring roughly once every Saturnian year (~29 Earth years).

Important Moons of Saturn

Titan

• Largest moon of Saturn and second-largest in the solar system, larger than Mercury.
• Only moon with a dense atmosphere, rich in nitrogen and methane.
• Features liquid hydrocarbon lakes near the poles.
• Explored by Cassini-Huygens mission; lander touched down in 2005.

Enceladus

• An icy moon with a subsurface liquid ocean.
• Known for its highly reflective surface and water-ice geysers.
• Cassini (2005) observed plumes of water vapor ejecting at ~400 m/s.
• Discovery of silica nanograins suggests hydrothermal activity, making it a prime target in the search for extraterrestrial life.

In News:

India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission, which successfully landed on the Moon’s south polar region on August 23, 2023, achieved a global first with its Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) — the first thermal probe to successfully penetrate the soil of a celestial body and measure subsurface temperatures in situ.

About ChaSTE:

• Full form: Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment.
• Part of: Vikram lander (Chandrayaan-3).
• Depth achieved: Successfully tunnelled10 cm into the lunar regolith.
• Duration of operation: From August 23 to September 2, 2023.
• Significance: First successful deployment of a thermal probe into extraterrestrial soil.

Key Features:

• Temperature sensors: 10 sensors spaced 1 cm apart near the probe’s tip.
• Deployment mechanism: Unique rotation-based system — unlike previous missions that used hammering mechanisms.
• Measurement technique: Monitored changes in motor resistance and tip temperature to determine soil contact and depth.

Scientific Outcomes:

• Provided direct temperature profiles of lunar subsurface near the south pole.
• Enabled insights suggesting greater-than-expected presence of water ice beneath the surface.

Comparison with Previous Attempts:

Mission                                          Agency       Celestial Body         Instrument                        Outcome

Rosetta – Philae (2014)      ESA              Comet 67P              MUPUS                          Deployment failed due to

                                                                                                                                               landing bounce

InSight (2018)                            NASA           Mars                         HP3 ("The Mole")         Could not collect data;

                                                                                                                                               probe failed to burrow

                                                                                                                                               as intended

Chandrayaan-3 (2023)        ISRO           Moon                       ChaSTE                               Successful soil

                                                                                                                                                                                    penetration and 

                                                                                                                                                                                    temperature measurement

• Innovation Edge: Unlike ESA’s and NASA’s hammer-based devices, ChaSTE used a rotating drill, allowing steady penetration despite lunar soil resistance.

• Developed by the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad.

In News:

• Ranchi, Jharkhand, is poised to become the first district in the state to launch a comprehensive campaign for the screening and management of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), now redefined as Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD).
• The initiative will be carried out under the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD).
• The campaign will begin on April 19, marking World Liver Day, and aims to raise awareness and strengthen early detection and treatment of liver disorders in the population.

About NAFLD/MASLD:

• NAFLD refers to fat accumulation in the liver not caused by alcohol consumption.
• It includes two types:
  • Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver (NAFL) – mild form.
  • Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH) – severe form, can progress to cirrhosis, liver failure, or cancer.
• It is increasingly prevalent in individuals with obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome.
• NAFLD is asymptomatic in early stages but can elevate the risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, and diabetes-related complications.
• Affects all age groups, including children.

Key Features of the Ranchi NAFLD Initiative:

• Two-phase Screening Drive:
  • Phase 1 (April–June): Focus on 30,000 high-risk individuals—those with obesity, diabetes, or hypertension.
  • Phase 2 (July–November): Screening expanded to all adults over 18 years in the district.
• Technical Support: Provided by the Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences (ILBS), New Delhi.
• Mobile Screening Vans:
  • Each van costs approx. ?1 crore.
  • Equipped with FibroScan, an advanced, non-invasive liver diagnostic tool.
  • Services provided free of cost in both urban and rural areas.
• Capacity Building:
  • 30–40 district-level officers to be trained as master trainers.
  • Frontline healthcare workers will be trained to conduct screenings and data collection.
• Health System Strengthening:
  • Referral mechanisms to ensure patients receive specialised care.
  • Data tracking system to maintain records until integration with the national NCD portal.

Public Health Significance:

• As per the district's civil surgeon, 50% of OPD cases are liver-related.
• On average, 25 patients/day are diagnosed with liver disease; five require hospitalisation.
• Early detection through such initiatives can help prevent disease progression and mortality.

Treatment & Prevention of NAFLD:

• No specific drug currently exists for NAFLD.
• Weight loss remains the primary treatment—shown to reduce liver fat, inflammation, and fibrosis.
• Management of comorbidities like high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes is also recommended.

In News:

A team of physicists in the United States has developed a novel method for remotely detecting radioactive substances using carbon dioxide (CO?) lasers. This advancement offers significant implications for national security, nuclear safety, and emergency response, where safe, long-distance detection is essential.

About CO? Lasers:

• Inventor: Prof. C.K.N. Patel, an Indian-American physicist.
• Laser Type: Four-level molecular gas laser.
• Active Medium: A gas mixture of CO?, nitrogen (N?), and helium (He).
• Wavelengths: 9.6 µm and 10.6 µm (Infrared region).
• Power Output: Can reach up to 10 kW, delivering continuous or pulsed beams.
• Mechanism: Operates through transitions between vibrational energy states of CO? molecules, facilitated by energy transfer from excited N? molecules.

Structure and Vibrational Modes of CO? Molecule:

• Composed of one carbon atom flanked by two oxygen atoms.
• Exhibits three vibrational modes:
  1. Symmetric Stretching – oxygen atoms move in tandem.
  2. Bending Mode – atoms move perpendicular to the axis.
  3. Asymmetric Stretching – oxygen and carbon atoms move in opposite directions.

Detection Principle: Avalanche Breakdown and Plasma Formation

• Radioactive decay emits charged particles (e.g., alpha particles) that ionize air, forming plasma.
• Seed electrons in this plasma gain energy via the CO? laser and initiate avalanche breakdown, causing further ionization.
• This chain reaction forms microplasmas, which produce optical backscatter detectable through sensors.

Key Experimental Insights:

• Laser Used: Long-wave infrared CO? laser at 9.2 µm, ideal for minimizing unwanted ionization.
• Alpha particle detection: Achieved from 10 meters, a tenfold improvement over previous techniques.
• Gamma ray detection (e.g., from Cs-137): Potential detection range of up to 100 meters, scalable with improved laser optics.
• Fluorescence imaging: Employed to analyze plasma dynamics and map seed electron distributions.
• Mathematical modeling: Successfully predicted backscatter based on plasma characteristics, validating the method.

Advantages of the Technique:

• Enhanced sensitivity to weak radioactive sources.
• Long-range detection without direct contact.
• Reduced risk for personnel during radiation monitoring.
• Scalability: Theoretically extendable to ~1 km with high-energy lasers and larger optics.

Challenges Ahead:

• Extended range detection requires larger optical systems and higher laser power.
• Signal degradation due to atmospheric interference and background noise at longer distances.
• Trade-off between detection range and signal clarity remains a critical engineering hurdle.

The use of CO? lasers for radioactive detection marks a significant leap in remote sensing technologies. While currently limited to tens or hundreds of meters, future developments may push detection ranges further, making it a valuable tool in defense, nuclear safety, and disaster management.

In News:

Recently, a 7.7 magnitude earthquake struck Myanmar near the Sagaing-Mandalay border, causing severe damage in key cities such as Mandalay and Sagaing. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) used its advanced Earth observation satellite CARTOSAT-3 to assess the destruction via high-resolution post-disaster imagery.

CARTOSAT-3: An Overview

• Developer: ISRO
• Launched by: PSLV-C47
• Mission Type: Third-generation agile Earth observation satellite
• Successor to: IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) series

Key Specifications:

Feature                                  Details

Resolution                           Panchromatic: 0.25 metres (sharpest civilian)

Orbit Altitude                    509 km (Sun-synchronous orbit)

Inclination                           97.5°

Weight                                   1,625 kg

Technologies                     Agile cameras, advanced onboard computers, high-speed data transmission

Commercial Use

• First commercial order executed by NewSpace India Ltd (NSIL), ISRO’s commercial arm.

Applications of CARTOSAT-3

• Disaster Management: Monitoring and assessing damage from earthquakes, floods, and landslides
• National Security & Strategic Operations: Surveillance and intelligence (used in 2016 LoC surgical strikes and 2015 Myanmar-Manipur ops)
• Urban & Rural Planning: Infrastructure development, land-use mapping, and road networks
• Environmental Monitoring: Coastal regulation and land-use changes
• Cartography and Remote Sensing: High-precision geospatial mapping and terrain analysis

Cartosat and Other ISRO Satellite Series

Satellite Series                                  Focus Area

Cartosat-1 to 3                                  High-resolution Earth imaging for urban/rural planning

RISAT                                                         Radar-based imaging (all-weather surveillance)

Oceansat                                               Oceanography, weather, and marine research

INSAT &Megha-Tropiques         Atmospheric and climate monitoring

In News:

The concept of “vibe coding” gained traction after an OpenAI co-founder demonstrated how modern AI tools can translate intuitive prompts into working code—eliminating the need for in-depth technical expertise.

What is Vibe Coding?

Vibe coding is an intuition-driven, casual approach to programming where users describe what they want to build, and AI generates the code accordingly. Instead of relying on traditional programming logic, this method focuses on the user’s "feel" or intent—making it well-suited for low-stakes, creative, or personal projects.

How It Works:

• Users give natural language prompts describing their desired output (e.g., a simple game, utility, or web page).
• AI models like ChatGPT, Cursor, or Sonnet generate the corresponding code.
• The user then runs or copies the code without necessarily understanding its structure or logic.

Key Features of Vibe Coding:

• Prompt-first, logic-second: Relies on describing functionality rather than coding step-by-step.
• Low technical barrier: No deep knowledge of syntax, algorithms, or frameworks required.
• Trial-and-error approach: Users often accept AI-generated suggestions without critical review.
• Heavy dependence on AI: Debugging and improvements rely primarily on AI assistance.
• Limited focus on performance/security: Generated code may lack optimization or safeguards.

Why Vibe Coding Matters:

• Democratizes coding: Makes programming accessible to those without formal training.
• Fuels creativity: Encourages playful experimentation and rapid prototyping.
• Saves time for developers: Ideal for automating small, repetitive tasks.
• Inspires new learners: Attracts non-traditional audiences into tech through approachable tools.
• Useful for quick builds: Ideal for weekend hacks, personal utilities, or mock-ups.

In News:

In Tamil Nadu’s Kunnapattu, Irula families who have lived on the land for generations face eviction and denial of rights, as nearly half remain without legal ownership or recognition.

Who are the Irulas?

• Ethnic Group: Indigenous Dravidian community, primarily in Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala.
• Constitutional Status: Recognized as a Scheduled Tribe and classified under Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in Tamil Nadu.
• Population: Second largest Adivasi group in Tamil Nadu.
• Language: Speak Irula, a Dravidian language related to Tamil and Kannada.
• Traditional Occupations: Snake-catching, healing, collection of forest produce, cattle rearing, and agricultural labour.
• Religious Beliefs: Pantheistic with reverence for spirits; worship Kanniamma (virgin goddess associated with cobras).
• Living Structures: Reside in small clusters called mottas, typically located on hill edges near forests.

Irulas and Snake Venom Economy

• The Irula Snake Catchers’ Cooperative Society supplies nearly 80% of venom for the production of anti-snake venom (ASV) in India.
• The community uses traditional knowledge to locate and capture snakes humanely, extract venom, and release them safely.

The Crisis in Kunnapattu and Beyond

Core Issue: Denial of Land Rights

• In Kunnapattu village, near Mamallapuram, ~40 Irula families have lived for generations. However, nearly 20 families lack legal land documents (pattas).
• The land is classified as meikalporamboke (grazing land), making it ineligible for patta allocation under current policies.
• Without pattas, families are denied access to electricity, government housing, and welfare schemes.

Government Response

• Officials proposed relocation with promised housing and legal ownership, but Irulas resist displacement due to ancestral ties, rituals, and local livelihoods.
• Affected families submitted multiple petitions, seeking in-situ recognition rather than relocation.

Broader Pattern across Tamil Nadu

Similar Issues in Other Villages

• Ottiyambakkam, Iyankulam, Keerapakkam, Chinnakayar, and Nemmeli show the same trend: ancestral tribal settlements without legal tenure, facing:
  • Forced or incentivized relocation.
  • Inadequate or delayed infrastructure (roads, electricity, water).
  • Joint pattas that complicate individual welfare access.

Urbanization vs Indigenous Habitat

• Irula hamlets are increasingly surrounded or displaced by real estate developments.
• Some families resist high-rise housing due to loss of space, cultural disconnect, and impracticality for community rituals.

Notable Success: Senneri Model Village

• Near Chengalpattu, Senneri-Hanumantapuram-Dargesh is a model Irula settlement:
  • Home to Padma Shri awardees in snake-catching.
  • Over 10 active SHGs working in traditional medicine.
  • Gender-inclusive education and organized habitation.
• However, even here, funding and timely housing construction remain challenges.

Challenges and Needs

• Lack of individual pattas limits access to electricity, housing schemes (e.g., PMAY-G), water, sanitation, and health services.
• Infrastructural gaps persist even in relocated areas.
• Traditional knowledge and community bonds are under threat from urban pressures and displacement.

In News:

In a significant breakthrough, NASA scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and Hawaii’s W. M. Keck Observatory have captured first-ever evidence of convective cloud activity in the northern hemisphere of Titan, Saturn's largest moon. The observations were conducted in November 2022 and July 2023.

About Titan:

• Second-largest moon in the Solar System (after Jupiter’s Ganymede).
• Only moon known to have a dense atmosphere and liquid hydrocarbon bodies (methane and ethane lakes/seas).
• Exhibits Earth-like weather, including clouds, rainfall, and seasonal cycles, making it unique among planetary satellites.

Key Findings:

• Clouds were observed in the mid- and high-latitudes of Titan’s northern hemisphere, the region where most of its methane seas (e.g., Kraken Mare, Ligeia Mare) are located.
• This marks the first confirmed evidence of convection-driven weather in Titan’s north, suggesting active atmospheric dynamics during Titan’s summer season.
• These findings expand our understanding of Titan’s methane cycle, which parallels Earth’s hydrological cycle, though methane replaces water.
• The JWST also detected a key organic molecule — the methyl radical, a reactive compound with an unpaired electron, involved in complex hydrocarbon chemistry.
  • This is significant because sunlight and Saturn’s charged particles break apart methane in Titan’s atmosphere, initiating prebiotic chemical reactions.

Scientific Significance:

• Offers a rare opportunity to study active chemical processes in real time — likened by scientists to seeing "a cake rising in the oven" instead of just its ingredients or finished form.
• Enhances understanding of prebiotic chemistry and the potential for habitability on icy celestial bodies.
• Builds on the legacy of the Cassini–Huygens mission (2004–2017), which studied Titan’s southern hemisphere.

Dragonfly Mission: The Next Leap

• NASA's Dragonfly, a nuclear-powered octocopter, is scheduled for launch in 2028 (on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy) and expected to reach Titan in 2034.
• Aims to conduct in-situ analysis of Titan’s surface, hopping between locations to study chemistry, weather, and possible signs of life.
• Recently passed the Critical Design Review, moving into the manufacturing phase.

About the W.M. Keck Observatory:

• Located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii, at 4,200 m elevation — ideal for infrared astronomy.
• Houses two 10-meter telescopes (Keck I and II), the world’s largest optical/infrared system.
• Features segmented mirrors and real-time computer-actuated adjustments for precision imaging.
• Uses stressed mirror polishing, a major advancement in off-axis mirror technology.

In News:

The Moon, Earth's only natural satellite, exhibits a striking hemispheric contrast. The nearside, visible from Earth, is dominated by dark, flat basaltic plains (mare), while the farside is rugged, heavily cratered, and lacks these features. This asymmetry has long puzzled scientists.

Recent findings from NASA's GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory) mission, launched in 2011, have provided critical insights into this phenomenon.

GRAIL Mission: An Overview

• Objective: To map the Moon’s gravitational field in unprecedented detail.
• Spacecraft: Two identical probes named Ebb and Flow.
• Method: By measuring the tiny variations in the distance between the probes as they orbited the Moon, scientists could infer differences in crust thickness, interior composition, and subsurface structures.

Key discoveries:

• The Moon’s crust is more porous and thinner than previously thought.
• Detection of long, linear features called dikes, indicating early lunar expansion.

Reasons for Lunar Asymmetry

• Tidal Deformation and Gravitational Asymmetry
  • The nearside flexes more than the farside during the Moon’s elliptical orbit, a result of tidal deformation caused by Earth’s gravity.
  • The increased internal heat and flexibility on the nearside suggest it is warmer and more geologically active at depth.
• Volcanic Activity and Heat Distribution
  • The nearside experienced intense volcanic activity billions of years ago, forming the large mare regions.
  • This activity led to the concentration of radioactive, heat-producing elements (like thorium and titanium) in the nearside mantle.
  • The nearside mantle is 100–200°C hotter than the farside, establishing a long-term thermal imbalance.
• Crustal Thickness and Surface Composition
  • The nearside crust is significantly thinner, allowing magma to reach the surface more easily, contributing to extensive lava flows.
  • The thicker farside crust restricted such activity, preserving its rugged, cratered appearance.

Implications for Space Science and Earth

• The findings aid in developing precise lunar navigation and positioning systems, essential for future human missions.
• The methodology can be applied to other celestial bodies like Enceladus (Saturn) and Ganymede (Jupiter), both candidates in the search for life.
• Understanding the Moon's structure enhances our grasp of Earth-Moon gravitational dynamics, which affect tides and planetary stability.

In News:

India has achieved a significant breakthrough in livestock genomics with the successful assembly of the first-ever chromosome-level genome of the Indian yak (Bos grunniens). The initiative was led by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) through collaboration among four of its premier institutes.

Key Institutions Involved:

• ICAR-National Research Centre on Yak (NRC-Yak), Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh
• ICAR-Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology (IIAB), Ranchi
• ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cattle (CIRC), Meerut
• ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Cattle (CIRC), Nagpur

Importance of the Indian Yak:

• Known as the “Ship of the Himalayas,” the domestic yak is crucial to the livelihoods of high-altitude pastoral communities.
• Provides meat, milk, fibre, dung for fuel, and is used for transport in rugged terrain.
• Found at elevations above 7,000 feet in regions like Ladakh, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir.
• Exhibits extraordinary cold tolerance, making it a valuable model for studying climate adaptation.

Scientific Achievement:

• Researchers used long-read sequencing technology and advanced bioinformatics tools to develop a chromosome-level genome assembly.
• This allows precise gene mapping, facilitating identification of genes related to:
  • Cold tolerance
  • Disease resistance
  • Milk and meat quality
  • Reproductive traits

Benefits and Applications:

• Conservation: Helps counter threats like genetic erosion, climate change, and loss of grazing lands.
• Livestock Improvement: Enables targeted breeding programs for improved productivity and adaptability.
• Scientific Research: Offers comparative insights into bovine genetics and facilitates allele mining for key traits.
• Sustainable Development: Aids in the socio-economic upliftment of yak herders by improving livestock performance.

About ICAR-NRC on Yak:

• Established in 1989, located in Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh.
• Premier institution for research on yak husbandry, health, nutrition, and genetics.
• Works to preserve the unique genetic resources of Himalayan livestock.

The Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO), under the Aatmanirbhar Bharat initiative, has successfully developed a high-pressure, nanoporous, multilayered polymeric membrane for seawater desalination.

Developing Agency:

• The technology was developed by the Defence Materials Stores Research & Development Establishment (DMSRDE), Kanpur, a DRDO laboratory.
• It addresses the Indian Coast Guard's (ICG) operational needs aboard Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPVs), especially to counter instability caused by chloride ions in saline water.

Salient Features of the Technology:

• Indigenous development completed in a record time of 8 months.
• Successfully tested in existing desalination plants aboard ICG vessels.
• Undergoing 500-hour operational testing before final clearance by ICG.
• Can be adapted for use in coastal areas for civilian desalination purposes as well.

Strategic Significance:

• Enhances onboard freshwater self-reliance for maritime security forces.
• Reduces dependency on imported technologies.
• Contributes to India’s self-reliance in critical defence and water technologies.

Desalination Technology: Key Concepts

What is Desalination?

Desalination is the process of removing dissolved salts and minerals from seawater or brackish water to produce potable or industrial-grade water.

Main Technologies Used:

• Reverse Osmosis (RO):
  • Pressure-driven membrane filtration.
  • Uses semi-permeable membranes to separate salts from water.
• Thermal Desalination:Involves evaporation followed by condensation to obtain fresh water.

Working of RO Desalination:

• In osmosis, water naturally moves from low solute to high solute concentration across a membrane.
• In reverse osmosis, external pressure is applied to force water from high solute (saline) to low solute (freshwater) side.
• RO membranes allow only water molecules to pass, filtering out salts and impurities.
• Seawater with ~35,000 ppm Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is reduced to 200–500 ppm, making it drinkable.

In News:

A recent study published inPhysical Review Letters reports that while the HAYSTAC experiment did not detect axions, it achieved a major technological milestone. The experiment significantly broadened the search range for axion masses and their interaction strengths, marking substantial progress in the hunt for dark matter.

What are Axions?

Axions are theoretical subatomic particles proposed in the late 1970s as a solution to the strong CP (Charge-Parity) problem in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). This problem involves the puzzling absence of CP violation in strong nuclear interactions, contrary to expectations.

• Axions were introduced to dynamically neutralize CP-violating effects by adjusting the QCD theta (θ) parameter to nearly zero.
• Over time, they have also gained prominence as a leading candidate for dark matter, the elusive form of matter believed to make up the bulk of the universe’s mass.

Why Axions matter in Dark Matter Research

Axions are particularly attractive as Cold Dark Matter (CDM) candidates due to their theoretical and cosmological properties:

• Electromagnetically neutral
• Extremely low mass
• Very weak interactions with ordinary matter and radiation

Foundational work by physicists like Sikivie, Wilczek, Dine, and Preskill demonstrated that axions produced in the early universe could account for the observed dark matter density—roughly 85% of the universe's matter content.

The HAYSTAC Experiment: A Precision Tool for Axion Detection

HAYSTAC (Haloscope At Yale Sensitive To Axion Cold Dark Matter) is a collaborative project led by Yale, Berkeley, and Johns Hopkins University, designed to detect axions by converting them into detectable photons using a haloscope.

Key Features:

• Haloscope Design: A microwave cavity placed in a strong magnetic field, following a design originally proposed by Pierre Sikivie.
• Quantum Squeezing: HAYSTAC is one of the few experiments—alongside Advanced LIGO—that uses quantum squeezing to reduce quantum noise, thereby enhancing measurement precision.

What is Quantum Squeezing?

Quantum squeezing is a technique that manipulates quantum uncertainty to minimize noise in one variable while tolerating increased uncertainty in another. This helps:

• Suppress random fluctuations, and
• Improve the signal-to-noise ratio—vital for detecting rare, weak signals like those possibly produced by axions.

Phase II Highlights of HAYSTAC

• Conducted the widest frequency sweep to date in the axion mass range.
• Marked a technical breakthrough in detection sensitivity.
• Although axions were not detected, the results helped rule out certain mass-coupling combinations, narrowing the parameter space for future searches.

In News:

A former SpaceX employee has filed a lawsuit against the company, alleging wrongful termination. According to the claim, the individual was fired due to frequent restroom visits linked to Crohn’s disease, a chronic medical condition. The case has drawn attention to the difficulties faced by individuals managing long-term illnesses in demanding work environments.

Key Details:

Crohn’s disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes chronic inflammation of the digestive tract. It is a lifelong condition that can significantly impact quality of life and daily functioning.

Key Features:

• Nature of the Disease:A persistent and often progressive condition marked by inflammation in different sections of the digestive tract, most frequently affecting the end of the small intestine (ileum) and the beginning of the large intestine (colon).
• Extent of Inflammation:Inflammation may penetrate deep into the bowel wall, leading to pain, damage, and complications over time.
• Common Symptoms:
  • Persistent diarrhea
  • Abdominal pain and cramping
  • Weight loss
  • Fatigue and sometimes malnutrition

Symptoms can vary in severity and may appear intermittently, often referred to as “flare-ups.”

Complications and Impact

Crohn’s disease can be debilitating and may result in serious complications, including:

• Intestinal blockages
• Fistulas (abnormal connections between body parts)
• Abscesses
• Nutritional deficiencies

Treatment and Management

• No Cure Available:While there is currently no cure for Crohn’s disease, medical therapies can effectively manage symptoms and inflammation.
• Goals of Treatment:
  • Inducing and maintaining remission
  • Healing affected intestinal tissues
  • Improving overall quality of life
• Treatment Approaches:
  • Anti-inflammatory medications
  • Immune system suppressors
  • Dietary changes
  • In severe cases, surgery may be required

Many individuals with Crohn’s can lead productive lives with appropriate treatment and support.

In News:

The ALICE collaboration at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has experimentally observed the conversion of lead nuclei into gold nuclei through a rare nuclear transmutation process. This discovery, reported in Physical Review C, marks the first systematic detection of gold production via electromagnetic dissociation at the LHC.

Historical Context: The Dream of Chrysopoeia

The idea of turning lead, a common base metal, into gold—a precious metal—dates back to medieval alchemy and is known as chrysopoeia. Alchemists were motivated by the similarity in density between lead and gold, but modern chemistry has established that chemical reactions cannot change one element into another since elements differ by their number of protons.

With the advent of nuclear physics in the 20th century, scientists learned that nuclear reactions could transmute elements, either naturally (radioactive decay) or artificially (particle accelerators). However, the ALICE experiment at CERN has revealed a novel mechanism of such transmutation involving near-miss collisions of lead nuclei.

Mechanism of Transmutation at the LHC

The LHC, located on the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator. It accelerates two beams of lead nuclei (each containing 82 protons) to velocities close to the speed of light (about 99.999993% of the speed of light) inside a 27-kilometre ring.

During ultra-peripheral or near-miss collisions, lead nuclei pass close by each other without direct contact. The intense electromagnetic fields generated by the 82 protons in each lead nucleus compress into a short-lived pulse of photons, producing a process called electromagnetic dissociation.

This photon-induced excitation causes the nucleus to oscillate internally and emit a small number of protons and neutrons. When a lead nucleus (Pb-208) ejects three protons and two neutrons, it effectively becomes a gold nucleus (Au-203).

Role of ALICE Detector and Zero Degree Calorimeters (ZDCs)

The ALICE detector uses Zero Degree Calorimeters (ZDCs) to detect and count these nuclear dissociation events by measuring the number of emitted protons and neutrons. The emission of zero, one, two, or three protons corresponds to the creation of lead, thallium, mercury, and gold nuclei, respectively.

This capability allows ALICE to distinguish rare electromagnetic transmutations from the usual high-energy head-on collisions producing thousands of particles.

Key Findings and Quantitative Data

• The LHC produces gold nuclei at a rate of about 89,000 nuclei per second during lead–lead collisions.
• During LHC Run 2 (2015–2018), approximately 86 billion gold nuclei were generated.
• This corresponds to a mass of only 29 picograms (2.9 × 10?¹¹ grams), far too little for any practical use like jewelry.
• Run 3, with increased luminosity, has nearly doubled the amount of gold produced.
• The gold nuclei exist only for a fraction of a second before fragmenting into protons, neutrons, and other particles upon hitting the LHC’s beam pipe or collimators.

Significance

This discovery:

• Demonstrates a new pathway for nuclear transmutation via electromagnetic interactions at ultra-relativistic speeds.
• Provides experimental data that helps refine theoretical models of electromagnetic dissociation.
• Aids in understanding and predicting beam losses, which are critical for improving the performance of the LHC and future particle colliders.

About CERN and the LHC

• CERN (European Organisation for Nuclear Research), established in 1954, is Europe’s premier high-energy physics research organization with 23 member states and 10 associate members (including India).
• The LHC accelerates particles to nearly light speed in a 27-km circular tunnel under the Franco-Swiss border, facilitating collisions studied by four major experiments: ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, and LHCb.
• These experiments aim to probe fundamental particles and forces, test the Standard Model of particle physics, and explore conditions of the early universe.

In News:

In a major advancement in condensed matter physics, researchers have identified a chiral quantum state in KV?Sb?, a topological material with a Kagome lattice structure. This discovery is significant as the material was earlier thought to be non-chiral, making this the first observation of intrinsic chirality in a bulk topological quantum system.

What is Chirality?

• Chirality refers to the geometric property of an object not being superimposable on its mirror image—a concept known as "handedness".
• It is common in nature, observed in:
  • Amino acids
  • The double helical structure of DNA
  • Spiral patterns in biological systems
• Molecules often exist in left-handed (L) and right-handed (D) forms, a feature crucial to both biochemistry and quantum physics.

About KV?Sb? and the Kagome Lattice

• KV?Sb? is a bulk quantum material characterized by a Kagome lattice—a structure formed by corner-sharing triangles.
• The Kagome pattern, originating from Japanese basket-weaving, serves as a fertile platform for investigating topological and quantum phenomena like superconductivity, charge ordering, and now, chirality.

Scientific Technique Used

• Researchers employed a novel tool called the Scanning Photocurrent Microscope (SPCM).
  • Unlike Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy (STM), which offers atomic-resolution images, SPCM is designed to detect nonlinear electromagnetic responses in materials.
• The SPCM detected handedness in the photocurrent, confirming the circular photogalvanic effect (CPGE)—a definitive marker of chirality.

Key Findings

• The material exhibited spontaneous symmetry breaking, particularly the formation of a charge density wave (CDW).
• At 4 Kelvin, KV?Sb? responded differently to right- and left-handed circularly polarized light, demonstrating the breaking of mirror and inversion symmetries.
• This confirms the presence of intrinsic chiral charge order, marking the first such observation in a bulk topological material.