In News:

In a significant development for Himalayan biodiversity, a rare sighting of a Himalayan Brown Bear with its family has been reported for the first time in the Dumka region between Nelang and Bhairon Ghati, within Gangotri National Park, Uttarakhand. The sighting has enthused wildlife experts and is viewed as a positive indicator of range expansion and ecosystem resilience in this fragile high-altitude region.

Significance of the Sighting

• This marks the first recorded presence of a brown bear in this specific stretch of the park.
• Previously, sightings were limited to Gomukh (6 bears) and Kedartal (3 bears), both located above 3,000 m.

About the Himalayan Brown Bear

• Scientific Name: Ursus arctos isabellinus
• Common Names: Himalayan Red Bear, Isabelline Bear; known as Denmo in Ladakhi.
• It is believed to be one of the most ancient brown bear lineages and may have inspired the Yeti legend due to its upright gait.

Distribution and Habitat

• Found in the northwestern and central Himalayas: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and China (Tibet).
• In India: Exists in fragmented populations in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
• Inhabits elevations between 3,000 and 5,500 meters, usually above the timberline in alpine meadows and snow-clad regions.

Ecological Features

• Size: Males average 1.9 m and 135 kg; females 1.6 m and 70 kg.
• Fur: Sandy or reddish-brown; thick to endure high-altitude cold.
• Diet: Omnivorous – consumes roots, berries, nuts, small mammals, fish, and insects.
• Behavior: Solitary, except during mating or a mother with cubs; hibernates during winter in dens.
• Lifespan: 20–30 years in the wild.

Conservation Status

• IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered
• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (India): Schedule I
• CITES: Appendix I

In News:

In a major escalation of the ongoing US–Iran tensions, the United States deployed the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber to strike Iran’s fortified nuclear infrastructure, including the heavily guarded Fordow enrichment facility, which was described by President Donald Trump as the “crown jewel” of Iran’s nuclear programme. The strikes signal a new phase in the geopolitical standoff, showcasing advanced US airpower and precision capabilities.

What is the B-2 Spirit Bomber?

The B-2 Spirit, developed by Northrop Grumman during the Cold War, is one of the most advanced strategic bombers in the world. Originally built for penetrating heavily defended Soviet airspace, it remains a key asset in the US Air Force due to its stealth capabilities, long range, and precision payload delivery.

Only 21 B-2 bombers were built, each costing an estimated $2.1 billion, making it one of the most expensive aircraft ever developed. Its bat-wing design and radar-absorbent coating significantly reduce its radar cross-section, making it almost invisible to radar and ideal for deep penetration missions in hostile territory. It is operated by a two-person crew and extensively automated to reduce pilot workload.

Why was it used in the Iran strikes?

The B-2 Spirit was chosen for the Iran mission because of its unique combination of stealth, range, and payload capacity. The Fordow facility, built deep within a mountain and protected by sophisticated air defences, required a bomber that could both evade detection and deliver a bunker-busting payload with high precision.

During the mission, the B-2s were reportedly equipped with the GBU-57A/B Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP) — a 30,000-pound bomb specifically designed to destroy deeply buried and fortified targets like Fordow. Due to the weapon’s size and weight, a B-2 can carry only one or two MOPs per sortie. Reports indicate that six MOPs were dropped on Fordow, demonstrating the operational effectiveness of the B-2 for such critical missions.

Capabilities and Strategic Role

The B-2 has an unrefueled range of over 6,000 nautical miles (approximately 11,000 km), enabling it to undertake intercontinental missions directly from the United States. Past missions have seen the B-2 operate from Missouri to targets in Afghanistan, Libya, and now Iran, demonstrating its global strike capability.

With a total payload capacity exceeding 40,000 pounds (18,000 kg), the B-2 can carry both conventional and nuclear weapons. It forms a crucial part of the US nuclear triad, capable of delivering up to 16 B83 nuclear bombs. Its ability to carry nuclear and precision-guided munitions gives it unmatched strategic versatility.

Weapon Systems Compatible with the B-2

Beyond the MOP, the B-2 can be armed with a variety of precision and standoff weapons, including:

• JDAMs (Joint Direct Attack Munitions): GPS-guided bombs used for high-accuracy strikes on fixed targets.
• JSOW (Joint Standoff Weapons): Glide bombs launched from a distance, allowing engagement of targets outside enemy air defence range.
• JASSM and JASSM-ER (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missiles): Long-range cruise missiles, with the extended-range variant capable of striking targets up to 500 miles (805 km) away.

This versatility allows the B-2 to adapt to multiple mission profiles, from conventional warfare to nuclear deterrence.

Strategic and Geopolitical Implications

The deployment of the B-2 in this mission has both tactical and symbolic implications. Tactically, it underscores the US military’s ability to deliver precision strikes on highly protected strategic infrastructure. Strategically, it sends a strong signal to adversaries about the technological edge and operational reach of American military power.

From a geopolitical perspective, the strikes could exacerbate tensions in the already volatile West Asian region, heighten concerns about nuclear proliferation, and potentially provoke retaliatory actions by Iran and its regional allies. It also raises questions about the future of US-Iran relations and the fragility of nuclear diplomacy in the region.

In News:

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on Wednesday approved Lenacapavir (LEN), the most promising HIV prevention medicine to be made so far.

What is Lenacapavir (LEN)?

• Type: Antiretroviral drug used as Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention.
• Mechanism: Prevents HIV infection in HIV-negative individuals at high risk.
• Efficacy: Clinical trials show it prevents 99.9% of HIV transmissions.
• Dosage: Injectable form, administered twice a year.

Recent Development

• Approved by: United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) – June 2025.
• Brand name: To be marketed as Yeztugo by Gilead Sciences.
• Described as the most promising HIV prevention drug to date.

Global and Indian Context

Global Need

• LEN could be a game-changer in ending the global HIV/AIDS epidemic.
• However, cost remains a barrier—initially priced at over $40,000 per person/year, now reduced to $28,218.

Indian Reality

• Despite India's 92% contribution to global ART supply, PrEP is yet to be rolled out under India’s National AIDS Control Programme (NACP).
• The National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) has not yet integrated PrEP or LEN into national policy.

India’s Role in Equitable Access

Expert View:

• India must take the lead in making LEN accessible, affordable, and timely.
• Equitable distribution is critical to preventing new infections and achieving AIDS elimination targets.
• Urges Indian regulators and generic companies to fast-track licensing and manufacturing.

Why this matter?

Public Health Impact

• LEN could stop HIV transmission at scale if made widely available in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
• Its twice-a-year injectable nature increases adherence, especially in vulnerable populations.

Cost Savings

• Prevention through PrEP like LEN is more cost-effective than providing lifelong ART after infection.

India’s Strategic Position

• India already serves as the global hub for HIV treatment through its generic pharmaceutical capacity.
• India’s leadership is central to global HIV prevention strategies including:
  • Treatment as Prevention (TasP)
  • Test and Treat
  • Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP)
  • Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Policy Recommendations

• Fast-track regulatory approvals for generic LEN in India.
• Integrate PrEP and injectable LEN into NACO guidelines.
• Ensure price transparency and accessibility through public-private collaboration.
• Collaborate with global health bodies (WHO, UNAIDS, Global Fund) to position India as the equitable access leader.

In News:

Recently, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change released the revised roadmap for the National Mission for a Green India (GIM). The updated strategy focuses on restoring degraded ecosystems, enhancing forest cover, and addressing climate impacts, especially in vulnerable landscapes like the Aravallis, Western Ghats, Himalayas, and mangroves.

About Green India Mission (GIM)

• Launched in: 2014
• Under: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
• Core Objectives:
  • Increase forest/tree cover by 5 million hectares.
  • Improve the quality of forest cover on another 5 million hectares.
  • Restore degraded ecosystems and enhance biodiversity.
  • Improve the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities.

Achievements So Far

• Afforestation Activities: 11.22 million hectares covered (2015–16 to 2020–21) through central and state schemes.
• Funding: ?624.71 crore released (2019–24) to 18 states; ?575.55 crore utilized.
• Target Areas: Selected based on ecological vulnerability, sequestration potential, and restoration needs.

Key Features of the Revised Roadmap

• Landscape-Specific Restoration:
  • Prioritizes Aravalli ranges, Western Ghats, Himalayas, and mangrove ecosystems.
  • Emphasizes regionally adapted best practices for ecosystem restoration.
• Integration with Aravalli Green Wall Project:
  • Aims to combat desertification and sandstorm risks in northern India.
  • Initial restoration planned across 8 lakh hectares in 29 districts of 4 states.
  • Estimated cost: ?16,053 crore.
  • Aims to develop a 5 km buffer zone covering 6.45 million hectares around the Aravallis.
• Western Ghats Focus:
  • Tackling deforestation, illegal mining, and degradation.
  • Measures include afforestation, groundwater recharge, and mining site restoration.

Combating Land Degradation and Climate Change

• Land Degradation (2018–19): Affected 97.85 million hectares (~1/3rd of India’s land), per ISRO data.
• India’s Climate Targets (2030):
  • Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO? equivalent via forest/tree cover.
  • Restore 26 million hectares of degraded land.
• Carbon Sequestration Potential (FSI Estimates):
  • Restoration of open forests can sequester 1.89 billion tonnes of CO? over 15 million hectares.
  • With intensified afforestation and aligned schemes, forest cover could reach 24.7 million hectares—achieving a carbon sink of 3.39 billion tonnes CO? equivalent by 2030.

Significance of the Revised Mission

• Aligns with India’s NDCs under the Paris Agreement.
• Supports goals under UNCCD and UNFCCC.
• Helps mitigate climate change impacts by creating natural buffers and carbon sinks.
• Promotes ecological sustainability, biodiversity conservation, and community livelihood enhancement.

In News:

A comprehensive national-level cyber security exercise, Cyber Suraksha, was launched by the Defence Cyber Agency (DCyA) under the Headquarters Integrated Defence Staff (HQ IDS).

About Cyber Suraksha

• Type: Multi-phased cybersecurity drill.
• Organised by: Defence Cyber Agency (DCyA) under the aegis of HQ IDS.
• Duration: From 17–27 June 2025.
• Participants: Over 100 experts from national agencies and defence domains.
• Environment: High-paced, gamified simulation of real-world cyber threats.

Objectives

• Enhance national cyber resilience.
• Train personnel in handling advanced cyberattacks.
• Promote a security-first culture across defence institutions.
• Integrate technical proficiency with strategic leadership.

Key Features

• Training capsules: Technical + leadership components.
• CISOs Conclave: Sessions by cybersecurity leaders, culminating in a table-top simulation.
• Hands-on exercises: Real-time attack simulations to test response capabilities.
• Focus on joint operations and decision-making under crisis.

About Defence Cyber Agency (DCyA)

Background

• Established: Announced in 2018, operational from November 2019.
• Origin: Recommended by Naresh Chandra Committee (2012).
• Part of India’s tri-service defence transformation, alongside proposed Aerospace and Special Operations Commands.

Role & Mandate

• Parent Ministry: Ministry of Defence (MoD).
• Reports to: Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) through Integrated Defence Staff (IDS).
• Location: Based in New Delhi.

Functions

• Conducts cyber defence operations for the armed forces.
• Coordinates incident response, cyber intelligence, and audits.
• Develops capabilities in cyber warfare, AI-driven cyber tools, and joint operations.
• Supports capacity building, certification, and training within the military.

In News:

Following the tragic crash of an Air India Boeing 787 Dreamliner from Ahmedabad to London Gatwick (June 2025), authorities have initiated DNA-based identification to match the remains of victims. In mass fatality incidents where bodies are mutilated or decomposed, DNA analysis becomes the gold standard for establishing identity.

What is DNA Identification?

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a unique genetic code present in almost every cell of the human body, with the exception of identical twins. It is widely used in forensic science for accurate identification, particularly in disasters where visual identification is impossible.

Sample Collection and Preservation:

• DNA begins degrading post-mortem, and the rate of degradation is influenced by:
  • Type of tissue (soft vs hard)
  • Environmental conditions (humidity, temperature)
• Hard tissues such as bones and teeth are preferred due to better preservation against decomposition.
• Soft tissues (like skin and muscle) degrade faster and, if used, must be stored in 95% ethanol or frozen at -20°C.
• In large-scale accidents, sample collection from wreckage can take weeks or even months (e.g., 9/11 took 10 months).

Reference Samples:

To match unidentified remains, reference DNA is taken from biological relatives—preferably parents or children of the victims, who share about 50% of their DNA.

Methods of DNA Analysis:

1. Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis:

• Evaluates short, repeating DNA sequences that vary among individuals.
• Requires nuclear DNA, hence not suitable if the DNA is highly degraded.
• Analysis of 15+ hyper-variable STR regions can confirm family relationships with high accuracy.

2. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis:

• Used when nuclear DNA is not recoverable.
• mtDNA is inherited exclusively from the mother and is present in multiple copies per cell.
• Effective for matching with maternal relatives (e.g., mother, maternal uncles/aunts, siblings).

3. Y-Chromosome Analysis:

• Targets male-specific genetic material.
• Useful for identifying remains using DNA from paternal male relatives (father, brothers, paternal uncles).
• Helpful when direct relatives are unavailable but male-line relatives exist.

4. Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) Analysis:

• Suitable when DNA is highly degraded.
• Analyzes variations at single base-pair locations in DNA.
• Can also match DNA with personal items like a toothbrush or hairbrush.
• However, less accurate than STR analysis.

Significance for Disaster Management and Forensics:

• DNA-based victim identification ensures scientific accuracy, aiding in closure for families, and upholding legal and humanitarian obligations.
• Modern forensic genetics has become an essential tool in mass disaster response protocols worldwide.

In News:

A recent study titled "Darkening of the Global Ocean", led by researchers from the University of Plymouth, has revealed that over 21% of the global ocean has darkened between 2003 and 2022, marking a significant environmental concern. The phenomenon, known as ocean darkening, is increasingly disrupting marine ecosystems and global climate regulation.

What is Ocean Darkening?

Ocean darkening refers to the reduction in the photic zone — the upper layer of the ocean (up to ~200 meters deep) where sunlight penetrates to support photosynthesis. This zone is foundational to:

• ~90% of marine biodiversity
• Climate regulation
• Ocean productivity
• Global fisheries

The study used satellite data and modeling based on the Diffuse Attenuation Coefficient (Kd 490), which measures how rapidly light fades through seawater. It found:

• 21% of global oceans experienced darkening in two decades.
• 9% saw photic depth decline by over 50 meters.
• 2.6% saw a reduction exceeding 100 meters — an area roughly equal to the size of Africa.

Geographic Distribution

• High darkening: Arctic, Antarctic, Gulf Stream, North Sea, eastern UK coast.
• Lesser darkening or even brightening: Some parts of the English Channel.
• The open ocean and climate-sensitive zones have witnessed the most pronounced declines.

Causes of Ocean Darkening

• Coastal Zones:
  • Runoff of agricultural nutrients, organic matter, and sediments.
  • Leads to algal blooms that block sunlight.
• Open Ocean:
  • Shifts in plankton dynamics
  • Rising sea surface temperatures
  • Altered ocean circulation patterns

These changes may be linked to climate change, land-use modifications, and increased rainfall-driven erosion.

Impact on Marine Ecosystems

Ocean darkening leads to:

• Shrinking habitats for light-sensitive species like Calanus copepods (key zooplankton and food web base).
• Disrupted feeding, migration, and reproduction cycles due to reduced solar and lunar light cues.
• Increased crowding in shallower waters, intensifying competition and predation.
• Collapse of marine food chains, even in areas with minimal fishing pressure.

Experts warn that this could represent one of the largest habitat losses in recent history, with implications for:

• Biodiversity
• Carbon cycling
• Oxygen production
• Ocean buffering against climate change

In News:

To combat rising cyber frauds and impersonation in the securities market, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has announced a verified Unified Payments Interface (UPI) ID system for all SEBI-registered market intermediaries. This mechanism, developed in coordination with the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), will be effective from October 1, 2025, and is part of SEBI’s broader agenda to enhance investor security and transparency.

Key Features:

• Exclusive UPI IDs: Only SEBI-registered intermediaries will be issued validated UPI IDs featuring a structured format: username.category@validBank. For example, a broker ABC Ltd using XYZ Bank would have the UPI ID: abc.brk@validXYZ.
• Category-Specific Suffixes:
  • .brk for stock brokers
  • .mf for mutual funds
• Authentication Visual Cue: Transactions with verified UPI IDs will display a “thumbs-up inside a green triangle” icon for easy identification by investors.

Role of NPCI

NPCI, which owns and operates the UPI platform, will exclusively allocate the “@valid” handles for payment collection by SEBI-registered intermediaries. This move ensures only authorised entities can use these UPI IDs, significantly reducing risks of fund misdirection.

SEBI Check Tool

To supplement the system, SEBI is also launching ‘SEBI Check’, a verification tool allowing investors to:

• Scan a QR code or enter UPI ID manually to confirm its legitimacy.
• Verify bank details, including account number and IFSC, of registered entities.

Investor and Intermediary Compliance

• Mandatory for Intermediaries: All SEBI-registered intermediaries must adopt the new verified UPI handles and educate investors about them.
• Optional for Investors: While the structured UPI handle is optional, investors must use only the new IDs if opting to pay via UPI.
• Discontinuation of Old IDs: Existing UPI IDs will be discontinued after October 1, 2025, except for ongoing SIPs (Systematic Investment Plans). New and renewed SIPs must use the verified UPI IDs.

Benefits

• Prevents Fraud: Eliminates payments to unauthorised or impersonating entities.
• Enhances Transparency: Clearly distinguishes registered entities from fraudulent ones.
• Boosts Investor Confidence: Assures secure transactions through verified payment channels.
• Supports Cybersecurity: Clamps down on fake UPI handles used for digital scams.

SEBI’s verified UPI ID initiative and the upcoming ‘SEBI Check’ tool are significant steps toward ensuring secure, transparent, and trustworthy digital transactions in India’s securities market. It reflects the regulator’s proactive stance in protecting investor interests in an increasingly digitised financial environment.

In News:

The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare plans to launch CROPIC, a study to gather crop information using field photographs and AI-based models.

What is CROPIC?

CROPIC stands for Collection of Real Time Observations & Photo of Crops. It is a new initiative by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare aimed at studying crops through photographs and artificial intelligence (AI). The core objective is to monitor crop health and assess mid-season losses using images captured at multiple stages of the crop cycle.

Why is CROPIC significant?

CROPIC plays a pivotal role in modernizing and digitizing crop monitoring under the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), India’s flagship crop insurance scheme.

Significance:

• Improved Loss Assessment: Traditional methods of crop loss assessment are time-consuming and subjective. CROPIC introduces AI-based analysis for faster and more objective decision-making.
• Automation of Compensation: It will help automate claim processes, ensuring faster payments to farmers in case of crop failure.
• Rich Crop Signature Database: Repeated field observations will build a valuable dataset of crop images over time, useful for future agricultural planning and risk management.
• Farmer Involvement: By crowdsourcing photographs directly from farmers, CROPIC also encourages their direct participation in data collection.

How will CROPIC work on the ground?

• Data Collection via App:
  • A mobile app developed by the ministry will be used.
  • Farmers and officials will take photos of crops 4–5 times during a crop’s life cycle.
• AI-Based Analysis:
  • Photos will be processed on a cloud-based AI platform.
  • The model will identify crop type, growth stage, health condition, damage, and loss extent.
• Visualization and Monitoring:
  • A web-based dashboard will visualize crop status and damage patterns for stakeholders.
• Use in Insurance Claims:
  • The app will also be used by officials to collect photo evidence for PMFBY claims, helping streamline compensation payouts.

Project Timeline:

• Pilot Phase:
  • Begins with Kharif 2025 and Rabi 2025-26.
  • Will cover at least 50 districts per season, spanning various agro-climatic zones and major crops.
• Full Roll-Out: After initial R&D, nationwide implementation is planned from 2026 onwards.

Funding and Support:

• Funded through the Fund for Innovation and Technology (FIAT) under PMFBY.
• FIAT has a total allocation of ?825 crore for various tech-driven agricultural initiatives.

In News:

After being presumed extinct in the Kashmir Valley for nearly three decades, the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) has been spotted again in the Lidder River in Srigufwara, South Kashmir. This rare sighting rekindles hope for the revival of the Valley’s aquatic biodiversity.

About Eurasian Otter:

• Common Names: Eurasian otter, European otter, Common otter, Old-World otter
• Local Name in Kashmir: Vuder
• Type: Semi-aquatic carnivorous mammal
• Distribution:
  • Widely spread across Europe, the Middle East, Northern Africa, and Asia (from Eastern Russia to China).
  • In India, found in northern, northeastern, and southern regions.
  • In Kashmir, historically abundant in Dal Lake, Dachigam streams, Rambiara stream, and the Lidder River.

Habitat & Features:

• Habitat:
  • Occupies diverse freshwater and coastal ecosystems—lakes, rivers, marshes, swamp forests, and mountain streams.
  • In the Indian subcontinent, prefers cold hill and mountain waters.
• Physical Traits & Adaptations:
  • Sleek brown fur (lighter underneath), long streamlined body, short legs, and thick tail.
  • Aquatic adaptations:
    • Webbed feet
    • Ability to close ears and nostrils underwater
    • Dense fur trapping air for insulation
  • Excellent vision, hearing, and olfactory senses.
• Behavior: Elusive, solitary, and primarily nocturnal.

Conservation Concerns:

• Primary Threats:
  • Water pollution degrading habitats
  • Hunting for fur, historically significant in Kashmir
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Near Threatened
  • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (India): Schedule II
  • CITES: Appendix I

In News:

11th June 2025 marked the 648th birth anniversary of Sant Kabirdas, one of India’s most revered 15th-century Bhakti saints.

Place of Birth: Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Birth Period: Circa 1440 CE, raised in a Muslim weaver family

Philosophy and Teachings

• Nirguna Bhakti: Kabir rejected idol worship and sectarian divisions, instead preaching devotion to a formless, universal God (Nirguna Brahman).
• Social Reform: He denounced casteism, rituals, and blind faith, stressing ethical conduct, humility, and self-realization.
• Inner Divinity: He believed God resides within and taught seekers to seek truth through introspection (Antar-drishti) rather than temple rituals.
• Language and Style:
  • Composed in Sant Bhasha, a blend of local dialects understood across religions.
  • Created Ulatbansi verses — paradoxical or "upside-down sayings" — challenging conventional wisdom.

Literary Legacy

• Major Works: Bijak, Sakhi Granth, Kabir Granthavali, Anurag Sagar
• Scriptural Inclusion:
  • His verses appear prominently in the Adi Granth Sahib compiled by Guru Arjan Dev.
  • Adopted by various traditions:
    • Kabir Bijak (Kabirpanth, UP)
    • Kabir Granthavali (Dadupanth, Rajasthan)

Impact and Influence

• Kabir Panth: A spiritual sect founded on his teachings, still active in North India.
• Sikhism: Deeply influenced Guru Nanak; Kabir’s dohas are integrated into Guru Granth Sahib.
• Cross-Religious Appeal: Respected by both Hindus and Muslims, he is a symbol of India’s syncretic spiritual culture.
• Other Sects: Influenced Dadu Panthis and Nirguna Bhakti traditions across India.

Contemporary Relevance

• Religious Harmony: In a climate of polarization, Kabir’s teachings offer a path of unity and spiritual inclusivity.
• Social Justice: His resistance to caste hierarchy echoes India’s constitutional values of equality and dignity.
• Sustainable Living: His emphasis on simplicity and contentment aligns with ecological and minimalist principles.
• Spiritual Humanism: He stressed conduct over ritual, making his message resonate across belief systems in today’s pluralistic society.

In News:

In June 2025, the Madhya Pradesh Government held a special Cabinet meeting at Pachmarhi, renaming the Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary after Raja Bhabhut Singh, a lesser-known but formidable tribal freedom fighter of the 1857 revolt.

About Raja Bhabhut Singh

• Lineage: Belonged to the Jagirdar family of Harrakot Raikheri, descended from Thakur Ajit Singh. His grandfather, Thakur Mohan Singh, had allied with Peshwa Appa Saheb Bhonsle of Nagpur during the 1819–20 resistance against the British.
• Role in 1857 Revolt:
  • A key Gond tribal leader with control over Jabalpur and the Satpura hills.
  • Employed guerrilla warfare tactics in the Satpura forests, using deep geographical knowledge to harass British forces.
  • Maintained close ties with Tatya Tope, a prominent national leader.
• Martyrdom:
  • British deployed the Madras Infantry to capture him.
  • He was executed in 1860, and is remembered in Korku tribal folklore.
  • Known as the "Shivaji of Narmadachal" for his resistance strategies.

Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Now Raja Bhabhut Singh Sanctuary)

• Located in the Satpura mountain range, central Madhya Pradesh, within the Deccan Peninsula biogeographic zone.
• Highest point: Dhoopgarh (1,352 m).
• Forms part of the Satpura Tiger Reserve, along with:
  • Satpura National Park
  • Bori Wildlife Sanctuary
• Key Biodiversity Zone in Central India.

Korku Tribe Overview

• Region: Mainly in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Melghat (Maharashtra).
• Occupation: Traditionally agriculturalists; introduced potato and coffee cultivation.
• Society: Patrilineal communities led by traditional headmen.
• Culture:
  • Practice ancestral worship through memorial stones called Munda.
  • Rich in oral traditions, which preserve the memory of tribal icons like Raja Bhabhut Singh.

In News:

Health authorities in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, have issued a public alert after a spike in Legionnaires’ disease cases in Sydney. The outbreak is suspected to be linked to contaminated air-conditioning systems in the city.

About Legionnaires’ Disease

Aspect                           Details

Cause                             Legionella bacteria, found in freshwater and man-made water systems

Type                                A severe form of pneumonia

Related Disease      Pontiac fever – a milder, flu-like respiratory illness caused by the same bacteria

Key Features

• Symptoms:
  • High fever, cough, shortness of breath
  • Muscle pain, headaches, confusion
  • Diarrhoea or nausea in some cases
• Transmission:
  • Not person-to-person
  • Spread through inhalation of contaminated aerosols (e.g., from cooling towers, air conditioners, hot tubs)
• Risk Factors:
  • Elderly individuals
  • Smokers
  • People with weakened immune systems or chronic lung conditions

Treatment and Prevention

• Treatment: Requires antibiotic therapy
• Vaccine: No vaccine currently available
• Prevention:
  • Regular maintenance and disinfection of water systems
  • Monitoring air-conditioning and cooling systems

In News:

A rare sighting of the Indian Giant Flying Squirrel (Petauristaphilippensis) has been reported in Ranikhet, a hill station in Uttarakhand, highlighting the ecological richness of the region.

About Indian Giant Flying Squirrel

Feature                                         Description

Scientific Name                      Petauristaphilippensis

Size                                                   Body length: 30–45 cm; Tail length: up to 60 cm

Appearance                               Rufous coat, grey underparts, large eyes, and a gliding membrane from wrist

                                                to ankle

Locomotion                                Glides up to 60 meters between trees using patagium (gliding membrane)

Habitat and Distribution

• Found in tropical and subtropical forests across central and southern India
• Inhabits evergreen, semi-evergreen, and deciduous forests, especially near forest edges
• Recent sighting in Uttarakhand indicates possible range expansion or overlooked presence

Ecological Role

• Diet: Fruits, nuts, leaves, and bark
• Acts as a seed disperser, supporting forest regeneration
• Considered a keystone species due to its ecological significance

Behavioural Traits

• Nocturnal and arboreal
• Emits alarm calls upon detecting predators like owls
• Active at night, gliding from tree to tree in search of food

Conservation Status

Category                                                   Status

IUCN Red List (Global)                     Least Concern

IUCN Status (India)                           Near Threatened (due to habitat loss)

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972       Schedule II

Threats

• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Deforestation and degradation of forest corridors
• Increasing human encroachment in forested landscapes

In News:

• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has recently introduced a new ‘Blue Category’ for industries under its Essential Environmental Services (EES) framework.
• Notably, Waste-to-Energy (WTE) incineration plants, previously classified as highly polluting ‘Red Category’ industries, have now been controversially reclassified under this new category.

Background: Pollution Index (PI) and Industry Categorisation

• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) classifies industries into categories — White, Green, Orange, and Red — based on a Pollution Index (PI) (0–100 scale).
  • White (0–20): Least polluting
  • Green (21–40)
  • Orange (41–59)
  • Red (60–100): Most polluting
• WTE plants, with a PI of 97.6, were originally in the Red Category.

What is the new Blue Category?

• Created under Essential Environmental Services (EES) classification.
• Grants 2 additional years of “Consent to Operate” (essentially, consent to pollute).
• Aims to support infrastructure like composting units, biogas plants, material recovery facilities, etc

Controversy: WTE Incineration in the Blue Category

• WTE plants burn unsegregated municipal solid waste (MSW) to generate electricity by producing steam to drive turbines.
• Unlike claimed benefits, WTE plants emit more CO? per unit of electricity than coal-fired plants, contributing to climate change.
• CPCB’s inspection reports found that Delhi’s WTE plants exceeded emission norms, releasing carcinogens and other pollutants such as:
  • SOx, NOx, HCL, PM, Dioxins, and Furans
• In FY 2022–23, Delhi’s WTE plants incinerated ~735,840 tons of plastic, contributing significantly to Delhi’s poor air quality.
• These plants also generate hazardous ash, requiring secure landfill disposal.

Issues with Reclassification

• The CPCB’s own guidelines state that:
  • Only projects that do not emit hazardous waste or
  • Projects that promote the circular economy can be blue-listed.
• However, leading government institute CSIR-NEERI has observed that WTE plants violate the principles of the circular economy and contravene Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016.
• Reclassification undermines environmental safeguards, harms waste pickers’ livelihoods, and imposes financial burdens on Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).

In News:

British startup Pulsar Fusion is developing Sunbird, a nuclear fusion-powered rocket that could significantly reduce travel time to outer planets like Mars and Pluto. An orbital demonstration is planned for 2027.

Key Features of Sunbird

• Maximum Speed: Up to 805,000 km/h, surpassing the Parker Solar Probe (692,000 km/h), the fastest human-made object to date.
• Travel Efficiency: Could enable missions to Pluto in just 4 years, and cut travel time to Mars by nearly 50%.
• Payload Capacity: Capable of delivering up to 2,000 kg to Mars in six months.
• Functionality: Unlike chemical rockets like SpaceX’s Starship, Sunbird would act as an interplanetary booster, attaching to spacecraft and possibly operating between charging stations in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Mars orbit.

About Nuclear Fusion Propulsion

Nuclear Fusion aims to replicate the process that powers stars — the fusion of atomic nuclei to release energy. Unlike nuclear fission, fusion is cleaner, offers higher energy output, and produces minimal radioactive waste.

Types of Nuclear Propulsion Systems

Propulsion Type                                                           Description

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP)             Uses a nuclear reactor to heat liquid hydrogen which

                                                                            turns to plasma and produces thrust. Provides high exhaust

                                                                            velocity and can increase payload efficiency 2–3 times

                                                                            over chemical rockets. Ground tests began in the 1950s.

Nuclear Electric Propulsion (NEP)                Converts reactor heat into electricity to power ion thrusters,

                                                                            which gradually reach high speeds. Components include a

                                                                                               compact reactor core, electric generator, heat rejection

                                                                                               system, and electric propulsion system. Unlike solar power,

                                                                           nuclear sources ensure consistent energy beyond Mars.

Challenges in Fusion Rocket Development

• Fusion systems are currently large and heavy, posing difficulties in miniaturisation for spaceflight.
• Fusion on Earth is hard to replicate due to atmospheric constraints; space offers a more natural environment for fusion reactions.

Global Efforts and Timeline

Apart from Pulsar Fusion, companies like Helicity Space and General Atomics (backed by NASA and Lockheed Martin) are also advancing fusion-powered space propulsion systems, with testing planned around 2027.

In News:

The Government of India will launch the UMEED Portal to digitize and streamline the registration and management of Waqf properties under the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025.

What is the UMEED Portal?

• Full Form: Unified Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency, and Development
• Purpose: A centralized digital platform to register, regulate, and monitor Waqf properties nationwide.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Minority Affairs, in collaboration with State Waqf Boards and judicial authorities.

Objectives:

• Ensure transparent, efficient, and time-bound registration of Waqf assets.
• Digitally empower stakeholders with access to legal rights, obligations, and procedural information.
• Resolve long-pending disputes and enhance accountability in Waqf administration.
• Provide real-time data, including geo-tagged property mapping, to support policymaking.

Key Features:

• Time-Bound Registration:All Waqf properties must be registered within six months of the portal's launch.
• Geo-Tagging and Digital Mapping:Properties must be geo-tagged and include precise dimensions for registration.
• Dispute Resolution Mechanism:Properties not registered by the deadline will be automatically flagged as disputed and referred to Waqf Tribunals for adjudication.
• Legal Support Services:The portal offers awareness tools regarding the amended Act and clarifies legal entitlements.
• Women-Centric Provision:Properties solely in women’s names cannot be declared as Waqf. However, women, children, and the economically weaker sections (EWS) remain eligible beneficiaries.

About Waqf and Recent Legal Reforms:

• What is Waqf?

A Waqf is a permanent charitable endowment under Islamic law, where assets (usually land) are donated for religious or public welfare purposes. Such property is inalienable and cannot be sold, inherited, or transferred.

• Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025:
  • Digital Mandate: Mandatory online registration of all Waqf properties within 6 months.
  • Judicial Oversight:Introduced provision for appealing Waqf Tribunal decisions in the High Court within 90 days.
  • Tribunal Empowerment:Unregistered properties after the deadline will be treated as disputed and decided by Waqf Tribunals.
  • Government Monitoring:Enhanced role of State Waqf Boards in ensuring compliance, registration, and dispute handling.

Significance:

• Aims to reduce litigation, encroachments, and opacity in Waqf land management.
• Bridges the gap between community welfare and digital governance.
• Strengthens institutional mechanisms for protecting religious endowments and improves access to justice.

In News:

Recently, Ukraine conducted a major drone strike on Russia, reportedly destroying over 40 aircraft using First-Person View (FPV) drones—marking one of the deepest strikes into Russian territory since the start of the conflict in 2022. This highlights the growing role of FPV drones in modern asymmetric warfare.

What are FPV Drones?

First-Person View (FPV) drones are unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that allow remote pilots to view the drone’s surroundings through a camera mounted on the drone. The live feed can be transmitted to:

• Specialized goggles
• Smartphones
• Other display screens

This immersive view enables highly precise navigation and control.

Key Features and Technologies

• GPS-Independent Navigation: Operates effectively even when GPS signals are jammed or unavailable.
• SmartPilot System: Uses visual-inertial navigation by interpreting camera data to assess the drone's position and orientation.
• LiDAR Integration: Enhances terrain mapping and obstacle detection in complex environments.
• Low Cost: A functional FPV drone can cost as little as $500, making them highly affordable compared to traditional weapon systems.

Operational Use in Combat

• Reconnaissance First: Typically, a long-range reconnaissance drone is used to identify the target area before deploying FPV drones for strikes.
• Deep Strike Capability: Despite having a short range (a few kilometres), FPV drones offer stealth and precision to strike deeply into enemy territory.
• Combat Strategy: Their agility and affordability make FPV drones a key component of attrition warfare, especially for resource-constrained nations.

Advantages in Warfare

• Cost-effectiveness: Offers high-impact capability at a fraction of the cost of conventional weapons.
• Reduced Human Risk: Limits the need for manned missions in hostile territory.
• Stealth: Smaller size and low acoustic footprint make them harder to detect and intercept.
• High Destructiveness: Able to carry payloads such as explosives, effectively targeting tanks, aircraft, and installations.

Challenges and Limitations

• Limited Range: Operates within a few kilometres, requiring deployment close to target zones.
• Reduced Situational Awareness: Pilots rely solely on camera feed, which may not provide full spatial context.
• Need for Visual Observers: In complex environments, an additional observer may be needed to guide the operator safely.

Ukraine’s Use of FPV Drones

Ukraine has effectively integrated FPV drones into its military strategy:

• In November 2023, FPVs were credited as a low-cost, high-impact method of resisting Russian advances.
• NATO sources indicated that over two-thirds of Russian tanks destroyed recently were hit by FPV drones.
• Ukrainian drone manufacturer Vyriy Drone delivered 1,000 indigenous FPVs in March 2025.
• Ukraine is projected to produce over 4 million drones in 2025, reflecting a significant scaling of domestic capabilities.

Geopolitical and Strategic Implications

• Technological Self-Reliance: Domestic production protects nations from geopolitical supply chain disruptions (e.g., China’s chip exports).
• Global Proliferation: Countries like Israel and Iran have also developed drone systems, including HAROP and Shahed drones respectively.

In News:

The Jharkhand government has proposed setting up its first-ever tiger safari in the fringe area of the Palamau Tiger Reserve (PTR), located in Latehar district. This initiative aims to promote wildlife education, conservation awareness, and eco-tourism, while also creating employment opportunities.

What is a Tiger Safari?

A tiger safari refers to a tourism model where rescued, conflict-prone, or orphaned tigers are housed in naturalistic enclosures, ensuring sightings for visitors. It differs from traditional wild safaris, where sightings are not guaranteed. The concept was first proposed in the NTCA's 2012 tourism guidelines, refined in 2016, and later aligned with the Supreme Court’s 2024 directive, which mandates that such safaris be located outside core and buffer zones of tiger reserves.

Legal and Regulatory Framework

• Governed by:
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
  • National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) Guidelines (2012, 2016)
  • Central Zoo Authority (CZA) for animal welfare, enclosure design, and project compliance
• Supreme Court Ruling (March 2024):
  • Tiger safaris must not be located inside core or buffer zones.
  • Intended to protect natural habitats and uphold conservation goals.

About Palamau Tiger Reserve (PTR)

• Established: 1974 under Project Tiger
• Location: Chhotanagpur Plateau, Jharkhand
• Rivers: North Koel, Burha (perennial), Auranga
• Vegetation: Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous forest (Sal-dominated)
• Key Fauna: Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Elephant, Sloth Bear, Leopard, Indian Pangolin, Otter
• Historical Note: Site of the world’s first pugmark-based tiger census (1932)

Project Details

• Location: Barwadih Western Forest Range (fringe of PTR, outside core/buffer zones)
• Size: Approx. 150 hectares
• Animals Housed: Only rescued, conflict-prone, or orphaned tigers from reserves/zoos (not wild or zoo-bred tigers unless approved)
• Objectives:
  • Promote tourism and conservation education
  • Create an experiential learning space for visitors
  • Generate employment (~200 local jobs)

The Central Zoo Authority (CZA) will assess the site and species selection. Post Forest Department clearance, the Detailed Project Report (DPR) will be submitted to NTCA and CZA. Approvals may take 5–6 months, followed by a construction period of ~18 months.

Concerns and Challenges

• Tribal and Community Rights:Activists caution that such projects may marginalize forest-dwelling communities and restrict access to traditional forest-based livelihoods (grazing, NTFP collection).
• Consent of Local Communities:As per the Forest Rights Act, projects on forest land must involve Gram Sabha consultation. Activists argue this has yet to be fully addressed.
• State's Clarification:Officials maintain that the site lies on forest land under state management, with no expected displacement.

In News:

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) released the Provisional Estimates (PEs) of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross Value Added (GVA) for the financial year 2024–25 (FY25), providing a comprehensive picture of the country's economic performance.

Understanding GDP and GVA

• GDP (Gross Domestic Product) measures the total expenditure in the economy, including consumption, investment, government spending, and net exports — representing the demand side.
• GVA (Gross Value Added) evaluates the income generated from the production of goods and services in different sectors — representing the supply side.
• The two are related by the formula:GDP = GVA + Taxes – Subsidies
• Both are reported in nominal terms (current prices) and real terms (adjusted for inflation).

Nature of Provisional Estimates

• The estimates are termed provisional because they include data from all four quarters but are subject to revision:
  • First Advance Estimates (FAE): January
  • Second Advance Estimates (SAE): February
  • Provisional Estimates (PE): May
  • Revised Estimates: Finalized over the next two years (in 2026 and 2027 for FY25)

Key Economic Indicators for FY 2024–25

• Nominal GDP
  • Estimated at ?330.68 lakh crore, showing a 9.8% growth over FY24.
  • In dollar terms (?85.559/USD), India’s economy reached $3.87 trillion.
  • However, this 9.8% nominal growth marks the third-slowest since 2014.

• Real GDP
  • Rose by 6.5%, reaching ?187.97 lakh crore.
  • The real GDP growth slowed from 9.2% in FY24, indicating reduced economic momentum.
• Sectoral GVA Performance
  • Overall GVA grew by 6.4%, down from 8.6% in FY24.
  • Sector-wise real GVA growth:
    • Agriculture & Allied Activities: 4.4% (up from 2.7% last year)
    • Industry (including Manufacturing & Construction): 6.1%
    • Services: 7.5% (notable growth in public admin, trade, and finance)
• Q4 FY25 Trends
  • Real GDP growth: 7.4%
  • Nominal GDP growth: 10.8%
  • Indicates a strong end-of-year performance.

Structural Insights and Concerns

• Manufacturing Weakness:Since FY20, manufacturing GVA CAGR (4.04%) lags behind agriculture (4.72%), signaling industrial stagnation.
• Employment Implications:Manufacturing’s sluggishness contributes to high urban unemployment and labour migration to rural/agricultural sectors.
• Consumption and Investment Revival:
  • Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE) grew by 7.2%.
  • Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) increased by 7.1%, indicating investment momentum.

Significance for Policymaking

• The GDP data serves as a basis for fiscal planning, monetary policy decisions, and public investment.
• It highlights India’s position as one of the fastest-growing major economies, while also revealing structural vulnerabilities — particularly in manufacturing.
• For international comparison, real GDP is crucial as it neutralizes inflationary differences across countries.

In News:

• The Perito Moreno Glacier, often referred to as the ‘White Giant’, is Argentina’s most iconic glacier, located in the Los Glaciares National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Situated in the Andes Mountains, near El Calafate in Santa Cruz province, this glacier spans approximately 250 sq km—about the size of Patna, Bihar—and stretches 30 km in length, with ice walls rising 60 meters above water.
• Formed during the last Ice Age (~18,000 years ago), Perito Moreno has historically remained unusually stable, defying the global trend of rapid glacier retreat. However, this stability changed around 2020, raising alarms among scientists.

Recent Developments and Ice Calving Events

• Perito Moreno is globally renowned for its ice calving events, where massive blocks of ice break off into the lake with thunderous crashes. These events, though natural due to the glacier’s forward motion, have recently become more intense.
• On April 21, 2025, a colossal ice chunk the size of a 20-story building plunged 70 meters into the water—an increasingly frequent occurrence in the past 4–6 years.
• According to local experts and a 2024 government-backed report, the glacier has been retreating steadily since 2015, with an average mass loss of 0.85 meters annually—the fastest in nearly five decades.
• Between 2020 and 2023, the glacier lost over 700 meters of mass, equivalent to around seven large ice blocks.

Causes: Global Warming & Climate Impact

• The primary cause behind this dramatic retreat is climate change. Scientists from IANIGLA (Argentine Institute of Glaciology and Environmental Sciences) and CONICET state that the region has experienced an air temperature rise of 0.06°C per decade and reduced precipitation, leading to less snow accumulation and thinning of the glacier.

Global Perspective on Glacier Retreat

Perito Moreno is now part of a larger, alarming global trend.

• A 2024 study in Nature estimates that glaciers worldwide are losing 273 billion tonnes of ice annually, contributing to a 2 cm rise in global sea levels this century alone.
• A UNESCO report (March 2025) highlighted that glaciers (excluding Greenland and Antarctica) have shed over 9,000 billion tonnes of ice since 1975—comparable to an ice block the size of Germany with 25 meters thickness.

Environmental Significance

• Freshwater Source: Perito Moreno is a major reservoir of freshwater in Argentina.
• Tourism: The glacier attracts global tourists, boosting the local economy.
• Climate Indicator: Its recent retreat reflects the delayed but accelerating impact of global warming, making it a critical environmental bellwether.

In News:

Japan’s West Japan Railway Company has unveiled the world’s first 3D-printed train station — Hatsushima Station in Arida city. Notably, the station was constructed in less than six hours, highlighting a major advancement in construction technology.

Understanding 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing)

What is 3D Printing?

3D Printing, or Additive Manufacturing, is a process of creating three-dimensional objects by layering material based on a digital design. Unlike traditional (subtractive) manufacturing, which removes material, this method adds material layer by layer, ensuring reduced waste and the ability to produce complex geometries.

How 3D Printing Works:

• Design Phase: A 3D digital model is created using CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software and saved in formats like .STL or .OBJ.
• Slicing: The model is sliced into horizontal layers using specialized software.
• Printing: The printer deposits material layer-by-layer according to the sliced file. Each layer solidifies to form the final shape.
• Post-Processing: The object is finished through processes such as curing, sanding, or painting.

Major 3D Printing Technologies:

• Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM): Uses melted thermoplastic filaments to build objects layer-by-layer.
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Uses lasers to fuse powdered plastics or metals into solid forms.
• Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS): Employs a laser to fuse metal powders — widely used in aerospace and medical sectors.
• Material Jetting: Deposits photopolymer droplets, cured with UV light — ideal for high-precision and colorful prototypes.

Limitations of 3D Printing:

• Material Restrictions: Only specific plastics, metals, and composites are compatible with given printers.
• Size Constraints: Limited build volume necessitates assembling larger items from smaller parts.
• Structural Weakness: Objects may have weak joints due to the layered structure, reducing suitability for high-stress uses.
• IP Challenges: Digital design files can be easily shared, posing risks of counterfeiting and intellectual property theft.

In News:

600-million-year-old stromatolites in the Himalayas tell the story of an ocean lost and Earth’s first breath.

What are Stromatolites?

Stromatolites are organo-sedimentary structures formed by the entrapment of calcium carbonate precipitates by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in shallow marine environments. These layered, dome-shaped mounds represent some of the earliest evidence of life on Earth, with their formation driven by photosynthetic microbial mats.

• Composition: Typically found in limestone, shale, and sandstone.
• Structure: Characterized by laminated layers that may appear flat, dome-shaped, or columnar.
• Habitat (Ancient & Modern): Mostly marine; some ancient forms inhabited freshwater and intertidal zones. Today, living stromatolites survive in limited saline lagoons and bays.

Latest Discovery: Chambaghat, Himachal Pradesh

A major stromatolite outcrop, dating back 600 million years, was recently found in Chambaghat, Solan district, Himachal Pradesh. These structures lie within the Krol Group of sedimentary rocks — a part of the ancient Tethys Sea that existed before the Indian plate collided with Eurasia.

• Elevation: Found at 5,000–6,000 ft above sea level, showcasing tectonic uplift.
• Age Significance: Though not the oldest globally or in India, these are among the younger but well-preserved stromatolites, possibly from the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary (~543–548 million years ago).

Scientific Importance

• Geological Record: Stromatolites document Earth's atmospheric shift from a greenhouse gas-rich to an oxygen-rich environment — a transformation driven by photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
• The Great Oxidation Event (GOE): Occurred ~2.4 billion years ago, when oxygen produced by cyanobacteria began accumulating in the atmosphere, enabling the evolution of multicellular life.
• Tectonic History: Their presence in the Himalayas illustrates the story of the Gondwana supercontinent, India’s northward drift, and the closure of the Tethys Sea.

Global and Indian Context

• Oldest Stromatolites (Global): ~3.6 billion years old from Western Australia.
• Oldest in India: ~2.5 billion years old in the Dharwar Supergroup, Karnataka.

Prominent Stromatolite Sites in India:

Region                                                      Geological Feature

Chitrakoot, Uttar Pradesh                    Columnar stromatolites in Vindhyan limestones

Morni Hills, Haryana                            Preserved stromatolites in dolomite

Mussoorie & Nainital, Uttarakhand    Precambrian marine stromatolites in Krol Belt

Jaisalmer Fossil Park, Rajasthan         Protected Mesozoic marine fossil site

Dharwar Supergroup, Karnataka        Neoarchean stromatolites (~2.6 billion years old)

Bhima Basin, Karnataka                      Precambrian stromatolites in shallow marine limestones

Preservation and Geoheritage

Geologists and experts advocate for declaring Chambaghat as a Geoheritage Park, involving local communities and schools to foster awareness. The goal is to integrate science with tourism, conservation, and education.

• Challenge: Many stromatolitic sites across India face neglect or risk from mining and construction, despite their scientific and educational potential.
• Appeal: Proposal for UNESCO Geoheritage status to protect and promote this prehistoric legacy.

In News:

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST-Kashmir) has successfully developed India’s first gene-edited sheep, marking a significant breakthrough in the field of animal biotechnology.

Key Highlights:

• Institution Involved: Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST), Srinagar.
• Technology Used:
  • CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing — a precision genome editing tool that won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
  • Gene editing was conducted without insertion of foreign DNA, thus the sheep is non-transgenic and differs from traditional GMOs.
• Gene Targeted: The myostatin gene, which regulates muscle growth, was edited to enhance muscle mass.
• Result: Muscle mass increased by 30%, a trait absent in Indian sheep breeds but seen in select European breeds like the Texel.
• Significance:
  • Improved meat yield and quality in sheep.
  • Potential for disease-resistant and higher-reproduction-rate livestock in the future.
  • Supports India’s evolving biotech policy by promoting non-transgenic, gene-edited organisms that are more likely to receive regulatory acceptance.
  • Aligns with goals of sustainability and food security by enhancing productivity per animal.
• Regulatory & Safety Aspects:
  • Research adhered to international biosafety protocols.
  • Sponsored by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
• Legacy & Research Background:
  • Developed after 4 years of dedicated research.
  • Led by Prof. Riaz Ahmad Shah, also known for creating India’s first cloned Pashmina goat, Noori, in 2012, and contributing to the world’s first cloned buffalo at NDRI, Karnal.

Implications for the Future:

• Opens doors for precision breeding in livestock to boost India’s animal husbandry sector.
• Strengthens India’s position in advanced genomic research and supports the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat in biotechnology.
• Awaits comprehensive regulatory framework for gene-edited animals, currently under government consideration.

In News:

Recent Household Consumption Expenditure Surveys (2022–23 and 2023–24) by the National Statistical Office (NSO), alongside a World Bank Poverty & Equity Brief, highlight a historic decline in poverty in India. This achievement is largely attributed to sustained GDP growth and declining inequality.

Key Findings:

Poverty Reduction Trends (2011–12 to 2023–24)

• All-India Poverty Ratio: Fell from 29.5% (2011–12) → 9.5% (2022–23) → 4.9% (2023–24).
• Extreme Poverty (<$2.15/day, PPP): Declined from 16.2% → 2.3% (2011–12 to 2022–23).
• Lower-Middle Income Poverty (<$3.65/day): Declined from 61.8% → 28.1%.

Updated Poverty Lines (Rangarajan Committee Methodology):

Area            2011–12           2022–23         2023–24

Rural           ?972                 ?1,837            ?1,940

Urban         ?1,407               ?2,603            ?2,736

• For a 5-member urban household, the 2023–24 poverty threshold is ?13,680/month.

Factors Driving Poverty Reduction:

• High GDP Growth: Rose from 7.6% (2022–23) to 9.2% (2023–24).
• Moderating Inflation: Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation dropped from 6.7% to 5.4%, enhancing real incomes. However, food inflation rose to 7.5%, affecting poor households disproportionately.
• Inequality Decline:
  • Gini Coefficient fell from 0.310 (2011–12) → 0.282 (2022–23) → 0.253 (2023–24).
  • Urban areas saw faster decline in consumption inequality.

Nature and Depth of Poverty:

• Poverty Near the Threshold:
  • Over 50% of the poor lie between 75–100% of the poverty line.
  • Large share of non-poor lie just above the line (115–125%), making them vulnerable.
• Depth Analysis (Raised Cut-Offs): Even at 125% of the poverty line, poverty fell by 34.2 percentage points (2011–24), showing broad-based gains.

Regional & Structural Challenges:

• Persisting Regional Disparities: States like Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha still report higher poverty levels.
• Urban Informality & Data Gaps: Recent surveys underrepresent informal workers and migrants, skewing urban poverty estimates.
• Vulnerability to Shocks: Health crises, climate events, or inflation could push the near-poor back into poverty.
• Gaps in Welfare Coverage: Urban poor and migrant populations face limited access to PDS and safety nets.

Policy Imperatives:

• Targeted Cash Transfers: Scale up schemes like PM-GKAY, DBT for LPG, and tailor transfers to those just above the poverty line.
• Strengthen Rural Employment: Enhance MGNREGA funding and integrate climate-resilient jobs.
• Build Urban Safety Nets: Develop a comprehensive urban social protection framework for gig and informal sector workers.
• Education & Nutrition Investments: Bridge human capital gaps via PM POSHAN, Saksham Anganwadi.
• Continuous Poverty Monitoring: Institutionalize annual poverty tracking using real-time and multidimensional indicators.

In News:

In 2025, the early onset of the southwest monsoon in Kerala (May 24) and Mumbai (May 26—the earliest on record) was significantly influenced by the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), as reported by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).

What is the MJO?

• The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is a large-scale atmospheric phenomenon observed in the tropical belt (30°N to 30°S).
• It is an eastward-moving disturbance involving winds, clouds, pressure, and rainfall that circles the globe every 30 to 60 days (occasionally up to 90 days).
• Identified in 1971 by Roland Madden and Paul Julian, it differs from ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation) in being intra-seasonal and transient.

Phases of MJO:

• Enhanced Convective Phase:
  • Associated with increased cloudiness, low pressure, and above-normal rainfall.
  • Characterized by rising air and moisture convergence.
• Suppressed Convective Phase:
  • Brings clearer skies and reduced rainfall due to subsiding dry air.

• These phases shift eastward and influence weather globally, including India.

Formation and Movement:

• Triggered by surface wind convergence that causes upward motion, cloud formation, and upper-level wind divergence.
• Travels at 4–8 m/s, completing a global circuit roughly every 30–60 days.

MJO’s Impact on Indian Monsoon:

• MJO in active phase over the Indian Ocean can:
  • Trigger early monsoon onset, as seen in 2024 and 2025.
  • Enhance cyclogenesis and monsoon depressions.
  • Improve intra-seasonal rainfall variability.
• May 2025 Event:
  • The MJO was in Phase 4 with amplitude >1, indicating strong activity conducive to rainfall.
  • This condition, along with favorable local and oceanic factors, supported early monsoon advancement in India.

Global Influence of MJO:

• Cyclone Modulation: Alters frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones.
• Weather Extremes: Affects jet streams, triggering cold surges, heatwaves, or floods in mid-latitudes (e.g., U.S., Europe, Australia).
• Interaction with ENSO: While not always directly linked, MJO can amplify or be influenced by El Niño conditions.

In News:

The Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food, and Public Distribution has initiated a robust crackdown on Dark Patterns—deceptive design practices used on digital platforms to manipulate consumer behavior. A recent high-level stakeholder meeting in Delhi, chaired by Union Minister Prahlad Joshi, brought together representatives from major e-commerce platforms like Amazon, Flipkart, Zomato, and Ola, along with consumer organizations and law institutions, to address the growing concern.

What are Dark Patterns?

Dark Patterns are user interface designs that intentionally mislead or coerce consumers into making decisions they would not have otherwise made. These manipulative tactics exploit psychological principles and cognitive biases to serve the commercial interests of platforms—often at the cost of consumer autonomy.

Types of Dark Patterns Identified by the Government:

The Department of Consumer Affairs has officially recognized 13 types of dark patterns in its November 2023 guidelines. Prominent among them are:

• False Urgency: Creating artificial time pressure (e.g., “Only 1 seat left!”).
• Basket Sneaking: Adding items to the cart without user consent.
• Confirm Shaming: Using guilt-driven language to influence decisions.
• Subscription Trap: Making subscription easy but cancellation difficult.
• Interface Interference: Hiding crucial information or options.
• Bait and Switch: Advertising one offer and switching to another.
• Hidden Costs: Revealing extra charges only at checkout.
• Forced Action: Making users complete unrelated tasks to proceed.
• Disguised Ads, Trick Questions, Nagging, SAAS Billing Abuse, and Rogue Malware Links are other examples.

These practices have been found across multiple digital sectors including e-commerce, travel, OTT platforms, edtech, online banking, and quick commerce.

Consumer Impact and Rising Complaints:

The National Consumer Helpline has witnessed a significant increase in grievances related to dark patterns. Platforms are accused of eroding consumer trust, causing financial harm, breaching privacy, and distorting fair market practices.

According to LocalCircles, based on a survey conducted across 392 districts with feedback from 2.30 lakh consumers, the worst offenders include edtech, airline, and taxi app services. Notably, companies like Uber and Rapido were recently issued notices by the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) for coercing users into paying tips in advance.

Regulatory Measures in India:

• Consumer Protection Act, 2019: While it prohibits unfair trade practices, it lacks explicit provisions targeting dark patterns, making enforcement challenging.
• 2023 Guidelines on Dark Patterns: Released by the Department of Consumer Affairs, these guidelines define deceptive interfaces as violations of consumer rights and misleading advertisements.
• Self-Audit Mandate: E-commerce companies have been instructed to conduct internal audits and eliminate dark patterns from their platforms.
• Proposed Joint Working Group: A mechanism is being considered to increase industry awareness and enforce compliance.
• Voluntary and Legal Enforcement: The government has urged digital firms to integrate the guidelines into internal policies and consumer grievance redressal systems.

In News:

A newly discovered genus and species of sauropod dinosaur, Jinchuanloong niedu, has been identified from fossil remains found in the Xinhe Formation near Jinchang city in Gansu Province, northwestern China. This discovery adds to the growing diversity of early-diverging sauropods from the Middle Jurassic period, dating back approximately 165 million years.

About Jinchuanloong niedu

• Jinchuanloong niedu belongs to the group Eusauropoda, which comprises early-diverging, strictly herbivorous, long-necked, quadrupedal dinosaurs.
• The fossil specimen includes a nearly complete skull with mandible, five cervical vertebrae, and 29 articulated caudal vertebrae.
• The skull measures approximately 31 cm in length and 12.5 cm in height. Notably, complete skulls are rare in non-neosauropod eusauropods due to their fragile nature.
• The skull is well-preserved, although slightly deformed due to compression. Most cranial sutures remain distinctly visible, aiding paleontological study.

Paleontological Significance

• This species is the earliest sauropod identified from Gansu Province, enriching the diversity of known early-diverging sauropods in East Asia.
• The discovery contributes valuable insights into sauropod evolution in northwest China, particularly during the Middle Jurassic.
• The presence of Jinchuanloong niedu helps trace lineage continuity in the aftermath of a global warming event during the late Early Jurassic, which led to the extinction of other sauropod groups, leaving only eusauropods.

Eusauropoda and Sauropod Evolution

• Sauropods, which existed from the Early Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous, were the largest land animals to have ever lived and were found on all continents.
• Characterized by massive size, long necks and tails, and a herbivorous diet, sauropods include both neosauropods and non-neosauropods.
• During the Middle and Late Jurassic, non-neosauropod eusauropods like Shunosaurus, Omeisaurus, and Mamenchisaurus-like taxa became dominant.

In News:

Kumbakonam Vetrilai, a traditional betel (paan) leaf variety cultivated in Tamil Nadu, was recently granted the Geographical Indication (GI) tag by the Government of India. This recognition was published in the Government Gazette in November 2024 and officially announced in April 2025, taking Tamil Nadu’s total GI products to 62.

Geographical and Agricultural Context

Kumbakonam Vetrilai is predominantly grown in the Cauvery river basin in Thanjavur district, covering areas like Kumbakonam, Ayyampettai, Swamimalai, Rajagiri, Thiruvaiyaru, and Papanasam. The region's fertile soil gives the leaves a distinct taste and aroma.

The oblong, heart-shaped leaves, ranging from dark to light green, are known for their pungent flavour and are a staple in South Asian households, used primarily in preparing paan—a post-meal chew with cultural and ceremonial value.

Cultivation and Harvest

The cultivation cycle begins with planting during March–May and August–October. Banana suckers are commonly used to provide shade for the vines. The first leaves, called kolundhu vetrilai, appear 20–25 days after planting.

• Maaruvethalai (1st year harvest): Yields larger leaves with a shelf life of 6–7 days and fetches premium market prices.
• Kelavethalai and Kattavethalai (2nd and 3rd year harvests): Smaller leaves with reduced yield.

The cultivation is labour- and capital-intensive, with most farmers operating on less than one acre. Adverse weather, soil issues, and labour shortages frequently impact profitability.

Cultural and Medicinal Value

Apart from its ritual and culinary use, betel leaf is valued for medicinal properties. Rich in antioxidants and chavicol (an anti-inflammatory compound), it aids digestion and is believed to help manage oxidative stress and diabetes-related conditions.

Economic and Export Potential

The leaves are sold at Rs. 80–180 per 100 leaves and are also exported. However, only about 10 out of 100 days are considered profitable due to market and climatic fluctuations.

GI Tag Benefits and Challenges

The GI tag:

• Confirms the authenticity and regional uniqueness of Kumbakonam Vetrilai.
• Helps curb misuse of the name and ensures only genuine, high-quality products are marketed.
• Boosts export potential and preserves agro-cultural heritage.

Despite this recognition, many farmers and sellers remain unaware of the GI tag. As per Sanjai Gandhi, the IP attorney behind the GI application, there's a pressing need for awareness, capacity-building, and marketing support to help stakeholders leverage the tag effectively.

Efforts are underway through outreach programs and school and college awareness initiatives. This GI tag is also notable as Thanjavur’s first agricultural GI recognition, adding to the region’s rich cultural profile.

In News:

Researchers at IIT Bombay have developed an advanced semi-transparent perovskite solar cell (PSC) layered over a traditional silicon solar cell. This results in a 4-terminal (4T) tandem solar cell that significantly boosts power conversion efficiency (PCE) to ~30%, compared to the current average of ~20% in conventional solar panels.

Key Features and Technology

• Structure: Tandem architecture using a bottom silicon sub-cell and a top layer of indigenously developed halide perovskite semiconductor.
• Material Efficiency: Halide perovskite is one of the most efficient light-absorbing materials and can be locally produced using available chemical resources.
• Cost & Efficiency Gains:
  • Potential to reduce solar power cost to ?1/kWh, down from ?2.5–4/kWh.
  • Offers 25–30% more efficiency compared to standard solar panels.
• Stability Improvements: Previously, PSCs degraded quickly. The new configuration extends lifespan up to 10 years, enhancing durability under heat and low-light conditions.

Strategic Significance for India

• Indigenous Manufacturing: Reduces dependence on imported raw materials, especially those dominated by China.
• Commercialization Plan:
  • Maharashtra government and MAHAGENCO exploring large-scale implementation.
  • ART-PV India Pvt. Ltd., a start-up from IIT Bombay's SINE, aims to deliver a commercial wafer-size solution by December 2027 using indigenous equipment.
• Applications:
  • Rooftop solar installations
  • Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV)
  • Vehicle-integrated photovoltaics (VIPV)