In News:

Every year, March 23rd is observed as Shaheed Diwas (Martyrs' Day) to commemorate the supreme sacrifice of three iconic revolutionaries: Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar. In 1931, these young leaders were executed by the British colonial government in the Lahore Central Jail. Their martyrdom remains a symbol of uncompromising patriotism and continues to inspire the socio-political consciousness of modern India.

Note: India also observes Martyrs' Day on January 30th to mark the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi.

Historical Genesis: The Lahore Conspiracy Case

The martyrdom of the trio was rooted in the radicalization of the Indian national movement during the late 1920s.

• Protest against Simon Commission (1928): The British government appointed the all-white Simon Commission to recommend constitutional reforms, sparking nationwide protests. During a demonstration in Lahore, veteran leader Lala Lajpat Rai was brutally injured in a police lathi charge and subsequently succumbed to his injuries.
• The HSRA’s Retaliation: To avenge Rai’s death, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) planned to assassinate James A. Scott, the Superintendent of Police responsible for the lathi charge.
• Mistaken Identity: In a case of mistaken identity, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev killed Assistant Superintendent of Police J.P. Saunders on December 17, 1928. This incident was labeled the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
• Assembly Bombing (1929): On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw low-intensity smoke bombs into the Central Legislative Assembly. Their objective was not to kill, but to protest against the repressive Public Safety Bill and Trade Dispute Bill. As Bhagat Singh famously stated, the intent was "to make the deaf hear."

Profile of the Revolutionaries

1. Bhagat Singh (1907–1931)

• Early Life: Born in Banga, Punjab, into a family of freedom fighters (Kishan Singh and Ajit Singh). The Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919) deeply impacted his psyche.
• Intellectual Contribution: He was a prolific writer and thinker. Under pseudonyms like Balwant, Ranjit, and Vidhrohi, he contributed to journals such as Kirti. His essay "Why I Am an Atheist" highlights his transition toward rationalism and Marxism.
• Organizational Role: He transformed the HRA into the HSRA in 1928, shifting the focus from mere independence to a socialist reconstruction of society. He also founded the Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926) to mobilize youth.
• Legacy: Known as "Shaheed-e-Azam," he popularized the slogan "Inquilab Zindabad" (Long Live the Revolution).

2. Sukhdev Thapar (1907–1931)

• Role: A core strategist of the HSRA, Sukhdev was the mastermind behind the organizational structure of the revolutionary cells in North India, particularly Punjab.
• Contribution: He was instrumental in educating youth about India's revolutionary history and played a decisive role in the planning of the Lahore Conspiracy.

3. Shivaram Rajguru (1908–1931)

• Background: Hailing from Khed, Maharashtra, Rajguru was a staunch advocate of armed resistance.
• Specialization: He was highly regarded as a skilled marksman within the HSRA. His participation in the Saunders' execution was pivotal to the group’s tactical operations.

Execution and Commemoration

The trial for the Lahore Conspiracy Case concluded with the death sentence for the trio. Despite widespread national appeals and diplomatic pressure, they were hanged on March 23, 1931. Their bodies were secretly cremated by the authorities at Hussainiwala (Punjab) on the banks of the Sutlej River. Today, the Hussainiwala National Martyrs Memorial stands as a testament to their bravery.

Significance in the Freedom Struggle

The martyrdom of Bhagat Singh and his comrades marked a shift in the nationalist movement:

• Shift to Socialism: It moved the revolutionary goal beyond "expelling the British" to "ending the exploitation of man by man."
• Mass Mobilization: Their sacrifice bridged the gap between the radical youth and the mainstream national movement led by the Congress, forcing the latter to adopt a more militant stance on Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
• Ideological Depth: They introduced the concepts of social justice, egalitarianism, and secularism into the revolutionary discourse.

In News:

Recently, the President of India Droupadi Murmu extended greetings on the occasion of the Sarhul festival, highlighting its cultural and ecological significance. The festival reflects the deep-rooted traditions of India’s tribal communities and their harmonious relationship with nature.

About Sarhul Festival

• Sarhul, meaning “worship of the Sal tree”, is one of the most important festivals of Adivasi communities in eastern India.
• It is primarily celebrated in Jharkhand and also in parts of Odisha, West Bengal, and Chhattisgarh.
• The festival is observed by several tribes, including the Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each of whom may follow distinct customs while sharing a common spiritual essence.

Cultural and Spiritual Significance

• Sarhul is fundamentally a festival of nature worship, symbolising the union of the Sun and the Earth, which is essential for sustaining life. The Sal tree holds central importance and is revered as the abode of Sama Maa, the village deity believed to protect the community.
• The rituals emphasise ecological balance, fertility, and renewal of life. Through symbolic representation, the pahan (village priest) embodies the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, represents the Earth, highlighting the interdependence of natural forces.

Rituals and Celebrations

Sarhul is celebrated over three days, reflecting a structured blend of ritual purity, community participation, and cultural expression.

• The first day is marked by preparation, including cleaning of homes and sacred groves (Sarna Sthals), collection of Sal flowers, and observance of fasting by the priest.
• The second day forms the core of the festival, when rituals are performed in sacred groves. Offerings and prayers are made for prosperity, good harvest, and community well-being, accompanied by traditional music and dance.
• The final day concludes with communal feasting, including traditional foods and rice beer (Handia), reinforcing social cohesion and shared identity.

In News:

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), under the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules, 1959, has approved excavations at eight significant archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu.
• These excavations are expected to provide a continuous cultural sequence from the Iron Age to early historic urbanisation, offering crucial insights into South India’s socio-economic evolution and its linkages with global trade networks.

Significance of the Excavation Initiative

The identified sites collectively represent:

• Transition from Iron Age societies to urban settlements
• Emergence of early Tamil civilisation and literacy (Tamil-Brahmi )
• Integration of South India into Indian Ocean and trans-regional trade networks

This initiative may help bridge historical gaps between indigenous urbanisation processes and external commercial interactions, including links with the Mediterranean and Southeast Asia.

Key Archaeological Sites and Their Importance

Urban and Cultural Centres

• Keeladi: Located in the Vaigai basin, it reveals an advanced urban settlement, with evidence of Tamil-Brahmi , planned habitation, and drainage systems, indicating a literate and organised society.

Burial and Iron Age Sites

• Adichanallur and Karivalamvanthanallur: Prominent burial sites that shed light on mortuary practices, social stratification, and Iron Age material culture.
• Thelunganur: Suggests early iron technology, pointing to technological advancement and early metallurgical knowledge.

Trade and Economic Centres

• Vellalore: Indicates trade links with the Roman Empire, supported by findings such as coins and ornaments.
• Nagapattinam and Pattinamarudur: Associated with Chola-period maritime activity, Buddhist influence, and participation in Indian Ocean trade networks.
• Manikollai: A centre for glass bead production, connected to long-distance trade with Southeast Asia.

Scientific Methods in Archaeology

The excavation process incorporates advanced scientific techniques:

DNA Analysis (Ancient DNA Studies)

• Helps trace genetic lineage, migration patterns, and ancestry
• Enables reconstruction of population history and biological relationships

Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Dating

• Determines the last exposure of mineral grains to sunlight
• Useful for dating soil layers and artefacts where organic material is absent

Role of the State Government

The Government of Tamil Nadu has demonstrated proactive commitment by allocating ?7 crore in the 2025–26 budget for archaeological research.

The emphasis is on integrating modern scientific tools with traditional excavation methods to ensure more accurate historical reconstruction.

In News:

India and Indonesia have recently partnered for the restoration of the Prambanan Temple complex in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Java. This initiative reflects deep-rooted civilizational ties, cultural diplomacy, and shared heritage between the two nations, while also highlighting India’s growing role in global heritage conservation.

About Prambanan Temple

• The Prambanan Temple is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia, located in Sleman, Yogyakarta (Central Java).
• Built in the 9th century by the Sanjaya dynasty, it represents the flourishing of Hindu culture in Southeast Asia.
• Locally known as Roro Jonggrang (Temple of the Slender Virgin), the complex is dedicated to the Hindu Trimurti—Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma.
• After being buried and neglected for centuries, it was rediscovered and restored during the 19th century, and later recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991.

Architectural Features

Prambanan reflects a remarkable fusion of indigenous Javanese and South Indian (Pallava) architectural styles, showcasing cultural exchange across regions.

• The complex comprises 240 temples, arranged in concentric layouts
• The central compound includes eight main and eight minor temples built on an elevated platform
• The Shiva Temple, standing at 47 metres, is the tallest and most prominent structure
• Other major temples are dedicated to Brahma and Vishnu
• The walls are adorned with intricate carvings depicting the Ramayana and other Hindu epics, reflecting advanced craftsmanship

Interestingly, while primarily a Hindu complex, the surrounding area also contains Buddhist shrines, indicating religious coexistence and syncretism in ancient Java.

In News:

Renowned Tamil lyricist and author R. Vairamuthu has been selected for the Jnanpith Award 2025, becoming the third Tamil writer to receive this prestigious honour.

About the Jnanpith Award

The Jnanpith Award is regarded as the highest literary honour in India, recognizing exceptional contributions to Indian literature.

• Institution: Established in 1961 by the Bharatiya Jnanpith, a cultural and literary organization.
• First Awarded: 1965
• First Recipient: Malayalam poet G. Sankara Kurup for Odakkuzhal.
• Objective: To honour writers for their outstanding contribution to literature across Indian languages.

Components of the Award

• Cash prize of ?11 lakh
• Bronze statuette of Vagdevi (Saraswati)
• Citation

Eligibility and Selection Criteria

• Awarded annually to Indian citizens for creative writing.
• Eligible languages include those listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution and English.
• Only living authors are considered.
• A recipient can receive the award only once.
• The same language is not eligible for consideration for the next two years after receiving the award.
• The Selection Board may withhold the award if no candidate meets the required standard.

R. Vairamuthu and Significance of the Award

• R. Vairamuthu is a prominent Tamil poet, lyricist, and novelist known for his contributions to modern Tamil literature and cinema.
• His selection marks:
  • Continued recognition of regional language literature
  • Strengthening of Tamil literary prominence at the national level
  • Reinforcement of India’s linguistic and cultural diversity

In News:

A significant archaeological discovery has been made in Kasaragod district, where a Megalithic laterite rock-cut chamber was unearthed at Panayal. The finding provides valuable insights into the burial practices, technological development, and cultural traditions of prehistoric societies in South India. The chamber forms part of a larger megalithic burial complex, where pottery of various shapes and sizes was interred as part of ritual practices associated with funerary traditions.

Megalithic Culture: An Overview

• The Megalithic Culture refers to a prehistoric tradition marked by the construction of large stone structures known as megaliths. These monuments were typically used for burial and commemorative purposes and were often located away from habitation sites.
• Archaeological evidence indicates that the South Indian Megalithic culture flourished roughly between 1000 BCE and 100 CE, with its peak phase occurring between 600 BCE and 100 CE. The period represents a fully developed Iron Age culture, evidenced by the widespread use of iron tools and weapons.

Iron Age Characteristics

The Megalithic period in South India is closely associated with the Iron Age, during which iron technology was widely adopted. Archaeological excavations across the region have yielded:

• Iron weapons and tools
• Agricultural implements
• Pottery and burial goods

These findings indicate technological advancement and suggest that communities had well-developed systems of agriculture, craftsmanship, and warfare.

Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Sites

The main concentration of megalithic sites in India is found in the Deccan region, particularly south of the Godavari River. Several important archaeological sites have been identified across the country.

Prominent sites include:

• Brahmagiri and Chandravalli in Karnataka
• Junapani, Khapa, and Muhurjhari in Maharashtra
• Adichanallur in Tamil Nadu

Evidence of megalithic culture has also been found in regions beyond South India, including:

• The Punjab plains
• The Indo-Gangetic basin
• Rajasthan and Gujarat
• Burzahom

This wide distribution indicates that megalithic traditions were practiced across diverse ecological zones in the Indian subcontinent.

Burial Practices and Material Culture

The recently discovered rock-cut chamber in Kasaragod is part of a burial complex, suggesting elaborate funerary traditions among megalithic communities. These burial sites often contained:

• Pottery vessels
• Iron tools and weapons
• Ornaments and ritual objects

The placement of pottery within burial chambers indicates ritualistic beliefs about life after death and ancestor worship.

Subsistence and Lifestyle

• Archaeological evidence suggests that megalithic communities practiced a mixed subsistence economy, including: agriculture, hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry
• Rock paintings discovered at some sites depict scenes of hunting, cattle raids, and group dancing, offering glimpses into the social and cultural life of these early communities.

Significance of the Discovery

The Kasaragod rock-cut chamber contributes to a deeper understanding of:

• The spread of megalithic culture in South India
• Funerary architecture and burial rituals
• The development of Iron Age societies in the Deccan region

Such discoveries help archaeologists reconstruct the technological, social, and religious practices of prehistoric populations.

In News:

The historic Golestan Palace in Tehran, Iran, recently attracted international attention after reports indicated that the palace complex suffered structural damage due to shockwaves and debris from airstrikes amid escalating tensions in the Middle East. The site, recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, represents one of the most important symbols of Persian royal heritage and architecture. The incident has raised concerns about the vulnerability of cultural heritage sites during armed conflicts.

Historical Background

• Golestan Palace is one of the oldest historic monuments in Tehran and has served as a major centre of political and royal power for centuries. The origins of the complex date back to the 16th century during the Safavid Dynasty, when Tehran began to emerge as an important political centre. Initially constructed as a fortified citadel for Safavid rulers, the site gradually evolved into an extensive royal complex with gardens, palatial buildings, and ceremonial halls.
• The palace gained greater prominence during the rule of the Qajar dynasty, which came to power in 1779 and declared Tehran the capital of Iran. During this period, Golestan Palace became the official seat of government and royal residence. Later, the Pahlavi dynasty also used the complex for important state ceremonies. Reflecting its historical significance and architectural value, UNESCO inscribed the palace complex on the World Heritage List in 2013.

Architectural and Cultural Features

• Golestan Palace is widely admired for its unique architectural style that blends traditional Persian aesthetics with European influences introduced during the 19th century. This synthesis reflects the cultural exchanges and modernization efforts of the Qajar rulers.
• The palace complex is particularly renowned for its vibrant tile work, which features intricate floral motifs, geometric patterns, and calligraphic inions. Rich colours such as turquoise, cobalt blue, yellow, pink, and white are used extensively, reflecting the Persian artistic tradition that emphasises symmetry, detail, and storytelling through design.
• In addition to decorative art, the complex also preserves valuable cultural archives, including early Iranian photography, historical documents, and royal artefacts from the Qajar period.

Important Structures within the Complex

The Golestan Palace complex comprises several important buildings and ceremonial halls:

• Shams-ol-Emareh (Edifice of the Sun): Built in the 1860s by Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, it is one of the most iconic structures in the complex and symbolises the influence of European architectural styles on Persian royal architecture.
• Marble Throne Hall (Takht-e-Marmar): A historically significant hall used for royal coronations and official state ceremonies.
• Mirror Hall: Famous for its elaborate mirror mosaics and luxurious interior decoration, representing the refinement of Persian decorative art.
• Other ceremonial halls: The complex also includes halls such as the Salam Hall, Brilliant Hall, Ivory Hall, and Reception Hall, which were used for diplomatic gatherings and royal functions.
• Museum buildings: Several museums within the palace display Qajar-era paintings, royal gifts, manus, and historical artefacts.

Significance of the Site

Golestan Palace represents the artistic, political, and cultural evolution of Iran over several centuries. It illustrates the transition of Persian architecture during the Qajar period, when exposure to European ideas led to new forms of artistic expression while retaining traditional Persian elements. The site also reflects Iran’s royal traditions, including coronations and diplomatic ceremonies.

In News:

As the world marks International Mother Language Day (21 February), declared by UNESCO in 1999 and observed globally since 2000, the theme of linguistic justice has gained renewed urgency. The day commemorates the 1952 Bangla Language Movement in Dhaka and seeks to protect linguistic heritage amid rapid globalization. Against this backdrop, UNESCO’s 7th State of the Education Report (SoER) for India 2025, titled Bhasha Matters: Mother Tongue and Multilingual Education, reframes linguistic diversity as central to quality and inclusive education.

UNESCO SoER 2025: Key Focus

Published by the UNESCO Regional Office for South Asia, the SoER 2025 aligns with SDG 4 (Quality Education) and India’s reform trajectory under the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. The report calls for strengthening Mother-Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) and identifies a persistent gap between policy commitments and classroom realities.

Core Areas of Emphasis:

• Access, Inclusion and Equity: Ensuring tribal children, girls, and children with disabilities learn in languages they understand.
• Contextual Learning: Integrating local knowledge systems across school and teacher education.
• Appreciation of Linguistic Diversity: Recognizing children’s linguistic repertoires as assets.
• Skills for Sustainable Futures: Using multilingualism to build cognitive flexibility and facilitate additional language acquisition.
• Institutionalisation: Embedding MTB-MLE in policy, teacher training, and digital ecosystems.

India’s Linguistic Landscape: Opportunity and Crisis

India represents one of the most linguistically diverse societies in the world:

• 1,369 mother tongues; 121 languages spoken by over 10,000 people.
• Linguistic Diversity Index: 0.914 (among the highest globally).
• Four major language families: Indo-Aryan (78%), Dravidian (20%), Austro-Asiatic (1.2%), and Tibeto-Burman (0.8%).
• Nearly 200 languages are vulnerable or endangered.

The UN estimates that a language disappears every two weeks worldwide. In India, the loss disproportionately affects tribal and minoritized communities. A rigid linguistic hierarchy-English at the top, followed by dominant regional languages-creates a “double divide,” marginalizing indigenous languages from education, governance, and digital spaces.

The Learning Crisis: Language Mismatch

A 2022 NCERT report reveals that 44% of Indian children begin schooling in a language different from their home language. This mismatch contributes to early learning deficits, poor foundational literacy, and higher dropout rates—especially among Adivasi communities facing a “triple disadvantage” (economic, social, linguistic).

Research highlights that early education in the mother tongue:

• Reduces cognitive load.
• Improves comprehension and retention.
• Strengthens critical thinking.
• Builds self-esteem and identity affirmation.

Recognizing this, NEP 2020 mandates instruction in the home language at least till Grade 5, preferably till Grade 8, marking a departure from colonial-era language hierarchies.

Constitutional Safeguards

India’s constitutional framework provides robust linguistic protections:

• Article 29: Right to conserve language, , culture.
• Article 350A: States must provide primary education in the mother tongue for linguistic minorities.
• Article 350B: Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities.
• Part XVII (Articles 343–351): Official language provisions.
• Eighth Schedule: 22 recognized languages.

Despite this framework, implementation gaps remain substantial.

Ground Realities and Innovations

The SoER 2025 highlights promising practices:

• Odisha’s Tribal MLE Programme: Covers 21 tribal languages across 17 districts, reaching nearly 90,000 children.
• Digital initiatives such as DIKSHA, PM eVIDYA, and AI-based language tools are enabling multilingual content creation.
• Community-led curriculum development in languages like Gondi, Santali, Khasi, and Mizo demonstrates the pedagogical value of indigenous knowledge systems.

In News:

The Prime Minister announced that the statue of British architect Edwin Lutyens at Rashtrapati Bhavan will be replaced by that of C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji).

• Edwin Lutyens designed Rashtrapati Bhavan.
• Rajaji was the first Indian occupant of Rashtrapati Bhavan as Head of State (Governor-General of India).

C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji)

Basic Facts

• Full Name: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
• Born: 10 December 1878, Salem (Madras Province, now Tamil Nadu)
• Popularly known as: Rajaji
• First and last Indian Governor-General of India (1948–1950)

Role in Freedom Movement

• Inspired by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• Active member of the Indian National Congress.
• Hosted Mahatma Gandhi during the Anti-Rowlatt agitation.
• Led the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha (1930), mirroring the Dandi March in South India.

Political & Administrative Roles

• Prime Minister of Madras Province (1937).
  • Promoted Khadi.
  • Advocated abolition of Zamindari.
• Governor of West Bengal (Post-Independence).
• Union Home Minister (after Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel).
• Contributed to the drafting of the First Five-Year Plan.
• Piloted the Preventive Detention Act, 1950.

C.R. Formula (1944)

• Proposed in pamphlet “The Way Out”.
• Attempted to resolve constitutional deadlock between INC and Muslim League regarding Pakistan demand.

Founder of Swatantra Party

• Established Swatantra Party (1959).
• Advocated market economy and opposed excessive state control.
• As Chief Minister of Madras State, decontrolled foodgrain distribution and prices.

Literary Contributions

• Founded an ashram in 1925 for social reform.
• Published:
  • Vimochanam (Tamil)
  • Prohibition (English)
• Won Sahitya Akademi Award (1958) for Tamil retelling of Ramayana (Chakravarthi Thirumagan).

Awards

• One of the first three recipients of the Bharat Ratna (1954), along with:
  • Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
  • C. V. Raman

Edwin Lutyens

About

• British architect and town planner.
• Key designer of New Delhi during British rule.
• Collaborated with Sir Herbert Baker.

Major Architectural Contributions

• Rashtrapati Bhavan
• North Block
• South Block
• India Gate

A central administrative zone of New Delhi is popularly called “Lutyens’ Delhi.”

In News:

Hoysala architecture (1050–1300 CE) is best known for its star-shaped (stellate) temple plans, soapstone carvings, and hybrid Vesara style blending Nagara and Dravida features.

Historical Background – Hoysala Dynasty

• Period: c. 11th–14th century CE
• Initially feudatories of the Western Chalukyas (Kalyana Chalukyas), later emerged as an independent power.
• Founder: Nripa Kama II (early phase as vassal).
• Capitals:
  • Initially Belur
  • Later shifted to Dwarasamudra (modern Halebidu)
• Ruled large parts of present-day Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu for over three centuries.

Notable Rulers

• Vishnuvardhana (Bittideva) – Major territorial expansion; prolific temple patronage; converted from Jainism to Vaishnavism under the influence of Ramanuja.
• Veera Ballala II
• Veera Ballala III

Architectural Style: Vesara Tradition

Hoysala architecture represents the Vesara style, a hybrid blending:

• Nagara (North Indian) features
• Dravida (South Indian) features

It evolved into a distinct regional idiom in Karnataka.

Core Architectural Features

1. Building Material

• Chloritic schist (soapstone)
  • Soft when quarried → allows intricate carving
  • Hardens over time
  • Enabled microscopic detailing (ornaments, curls, fingernails)

2. Ground Plan Variations

• Ekakuta – Single shrine
• Dvikuta – Two shrines
• Trikuta – Three shrines
• Chatushkuta / Panchakuta – Four or five shrines

Most temples stand on a raised jagati (platform) with a stellate (star-shaped) plan, producing rhythmic projections and recesses.

Distinctive Feature: Unlike the cruciform Panchayatan layout, Hoysala temples maximize sculptural surface through multiple star-shaped projections.

3. Sculptural Ornamentation

• Outer walls resemble sculptural manus.
• Horizontal friezes depict:
  • Elephants (strength)
  • Horses
  • Mythical beasts
  • Episodes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas
• Bracket figures: Madanikas (celestial dancers)
• Detailed jewellery and costumes carved in stone.

4. Shikhara (Superstructure)

• Tiered arrangement with horizontal mouldings.
• Interconnected chambers crowned by proportionate towers.
• Harmonious vertical elevation.

Important Hoysala Temples

1. Chennakeshava Temple

• Located at Belur.
• Commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana after victory over the Cholas.
• Dedicated to Vishnu.
• Known for exquisite bracket figures (madanikas).
• Inscribed under UNESCO (2023).

2. Hoysaleswara Temple

• Grand Shiva temple at Halebidu.
• Elaborate narrative friezes and mythological panels.
• One of the most sculpturally dense monuments.
• UNESCO inion (2023).

3. Keshava Temple

• 13th-century Trikuta Vaishnava temple.
• Built by Somanatha Dandanayaka under Narasimha III.
• Exemplifies mature Hoysala detailing.
• UNESCO inion (2023).

Other Important Monuments (Prelims Focus)

• Veera Narayana Temple (c. 1200 CE) – Large ranga-mandapa, interior emphasis.
• Nageshwara & Govindeshwara Temples (Koravangala) – Transitional phase from Chalukyan to mature Hoysala style.
• Bucheshwara Temple (1173 CE) – High sculptural density; star-shaped platform.
• Lakshminarasimha Temple (1250 CE, Javagal) – Trikuta shrine; polished pillars.
• Lakshmidevi Temple (1114 CE) – Early experiment; rare Mahakali shrine; patronized by merchant Sahaja Devi.
• Panchalingeshwara Temple (Mandya) – Rare Panchakuta design (five east-facing Shiva shrines).
• Jain Basadis at Halebidu – Parshvanatha, Shantinatha, Adinatha; restrained aesthetic.
• Hulikere Kalyani – 12th-century stepped tank integrating cosmological symbolism.

UNESCO Recognition

In 2023, the following were inscribed as “Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas” during the 45th World Heritage Committee session:

• Chennakeshava Temple (Belur)
• Hoysaleswara Temple (Halebidu)
• Keshava Temple (Somanathapura)

In News:

The Union Civil Aviation Minister recently stated that the Centre is preparing plans to further develop tourist destinations around prominent temples in Andhra Pradesh under the PRASHAD scheme, highlighting renewed focus on temple-based tourism infrastructure.

About Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual Heritage Augmentation Drive (PRASHAD) Scheme

• PRASHAD is a Central Sector Scheme (100% Central funding) launched in 2014–15 for integrated development of identified pilgrimage and heritage destinations.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Tourism
• Objective:
  • Integrated development of identified pilgrimage and spiritual heritage destinations.
  • Improvement of tourism infrastructure to enhance pilgrim and visitor experience.
• Funding Pattern:
  • 100% financial assistance by the Central Government for public-funded project components.
  • Encourages additional support through: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Public-Private Partnership (PPP)
• Implementation Mechanism:
  • A dedicated Mission Directorate under the Ministry of Tourism oversees execution.
  • Coordinates with State Governments/UT Administrations and other stakeholders.
  • Identifies projects in selected cities and ensures integrated planning.
• Focus Areas of Development
  • Projects typically include:
    • Last-mile connectivity
    • Tourist amenities (toilets, drinking water, parking)
    • Illumination and landscaping
    • Riverfront and heritage area development
    • Interpretation centres
    • Signage and visitor facilitation centres
• Significance
  • Boost to Religious Tourism: Pilgrimage tourism is one of the largest segments of domestic tourism in India.
  • Employment Generation: Infrastructure development creates direct and indirect employment in hospitality, transport, handicrafts, and local services.
  • Local Skill & Capacity Development: Enhances livelihood opportunities for local communities.
  • Cultural Preservation: Strengthens conservation and promotion of India’s spiritual and heritage assets.
  • Economic Multiplier Effect: Promotes regional economic growth through tourism-led development.

In News:

The centenary of the Ol Chiki (1925–2025) is being commemorated by the Ministry of Culture, with the inaugural function held in New Delhi. The occasion is marked by the release of a ?100 commemorative coin and a special postage stamp, symbolising national recognition of a that transformed the Santhali language from an oral tradition into a structured written medium. The milestone reflects not merely a linguistic achievement but a broader assertion of tribal identity and cultural dignity.

Historical Background and Genesis

For centuries, Santhali—belonging to the Austroasiatic (Munda) language family—was sustained through rich oral traditions of folklore, songs, rituals, and storytelling. However, the absence of a dedicated limited formal documentation, education, and literary standardisation. Prior to the 20th century, Santhali was transcribed using borrowed s such as Roman, Bengali, Odia, and Devanagari, which inadequately represented its distinctive phonetic features, including glottal stops and unique vowel patterns.

Recognising this gap, Pandit Raghunath Murmu (1905–1982) developed the Ol Chiki in 1925. Revered as Guru Gomke (Great Teacher), he sought to provide Santhali with a scientifically designed and culturally rooted writing system. His seminal literary work, High Serena (1936), was among the first books written in Ol Chiki, followed by other influential writings that strengthened linguistic awareness and literacy.

Linguistic Features of Ol Chiki

Ol Chiki is distinguished by its phonetic precision and indigenous design:

• 30 letters, representing vowels and consonants
• One symbol corresponds to one sound (direct phonetic mapping)
• Accurately captures glottal stops and unique phonetic elements
• No conjunct letters, ensuring structural simplicity
• Not derived from Brahmi or Roman s

Unlike adapted s, Ol Chiki was created exclusively for Santhali phonology, enabling accurate recording of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. It facilitated standardisation in education, translation, and publication.

Constitutional and Institutional Recognition

A major milestone came in 2003 when Santhali was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution through the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act. This inclusion institutionalised the language within India’s formal linguistic framework, enabling its use in education, public administration, competitive examinations, and literary promotion.

In December 2025, the Constitution of India was officially translated into Santhali using Ol Chiki. This initiative enhanced democratic accessibility by enabling Santhali-speaking citizens to engage directly with constitutional provisions, including tribal safeguards under the Fifth and Sixth Schedules. It marked a step toward linguistic justice and participatory governance.

National Commemoration

To mark 100 years of Ol Chiki, the Government of India has issued:

• A ?100 commemorative coin, featuring the Lion Capital of Ashoka on the obverse and a portrait of Pandit Raghunath Murmu alongside Ol Chiki characters on the reverse.
• A commemorative postage stamp, reinforcing philatelic recognition of cultural milestones.

These symbolic gestures affirm the ’s role in preserving indigenous heritage within India’s pluralistic framework.

In News:

The recent inauguration and renaming of Adampur Airport in Punjab after Sri Sant Guru Ravidas Ji highlights the continued relevance of medieval Bhakti saints in India’s socio-cultural landscape. Such recognition goes beyond symbolic tribute and reflects the enduring influence of Guru Ravidas’s teachings on equality, dignity, and spiritual freedom.

Guru Ravidas

• Guru Ravidas (c. 1377–1527 CE) was a prominent saint-poet of the Bhakti Movement, born in Sir Gobardhanpur near Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). His life coincided with other major Bhakti figures such as Kabir, and he is traditionally regarded as a disciple of Ramananda.
• Guru Ravidas composed devotional poetry in local dialects, making spiritual ideas accessible to common people. His verses emphasised direct devotion to the divine without ritualism or priestly mediation.

Teachings and Philosophy

Guru Ravidas’s philosophy was deeply egalitarian and reformist:

• Rejected the caste hierarchy and social discrimination
• Advocated human dignity and equality
• Promoted spiritual freedom over ritual orthodoxy
• Emphasised Nirguna Bhakti (devotion to a formless divine)

A central idea in his teachings is “Beghumpura” — an ideal city without sorrow, fear, or discrimination, symbolising a just and casteless society. This vision makes him a powerful voice in India’s historical struggle against untouchability and social exclusion.

Literary and Religious Legacy

Guru Ravidas’s influence transcended religious boundaries:

• 41 hymns attributed to him are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of Sikhism
• His verses also appear in the Panch Vani of the Dadu Panthi tradition
• The Bhakti saint Meera Bai is believed to have regarded him as her spiritual guide

Over time, his teachings became the foundation of the Ravidassia religion, whose followers revere him as their central spiritual authority. The community follows the Amrit Bani Guru Ravidass as its holy book and has developed distinct religious symbols and practices.

In News:

Lucknow has officially submitted its nomination to be recognised as a “City of Gastronomy” under the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN), aiming to join Hyderabad as the only other Indian city to hold this title in the gastronomy category.

About the UCCN

• Established: 2004
• Purpose: To promote international cooperation among cities that use creativity as a key element for sustainable urban development.
• Focus Areas: Literature, Music, Crafts & Folk Arts, Design, Film, Media Arts, and Gastronomy.
• Key Goals:
  • Leverage the creative economy for sustainable development.
  • Encourage cultural diversity and resilience against urban challenges like climate change and inequality.
  • Promote collaboration across public, private, and civil society sectors.

UCCN and Sustainable Development

• UCCN supports the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by positioning culture and creativity at the heart of local development policies and planning.
• Member cities are expected to create innovation hubs, support local artists, and preserve cultural heritage.

India and the UCCN

As of 2023, 10 Indian cities are part of the network:

• Hyderabad – Gastronomy
• Jaipur – Crafts and Folk Arts
• Varanasi – Music
• Chennai – Music
• Mumbai – Film
• Srinagar – Crafts and Folk Arts
• Kozhikode – Literature
• Gwalior – Music (Recent entries include Kozhikode and Gwalior)

Lucknow’s Nomination: Highlights

• Nominated Title: City of Gastronomy
• Coordinated by: Department of Tourism and Culture, Lucknow
• Culinary Heritage: Awadhi cuisine, including dishes like nihari, kebabs, biryani, khasta, kulfi, jalebi, and puri-sabzi.
• Cultural Value: The city’s food is not just a tradition but a living culinary ecosystem, passed down through generations and practiced by diverse communities.
• Dossier Preparation: By renowned heritage conservationist Abha Narain Lambah.
• Verification: A field visit by UNESCO is expected as part of the evaluation process.

Global Cities of Gastronomy (Examples)

• Alba (Italy)
• Arequipa (Peru)
• Bergen (Norway)
• Belem (Brazil)
• Bendigo (Australia)

These cities, like Hyderabad, are recognised for their distinctive and sustainable culinary traditions.

In News:

Tensions have resurfaced between Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics (GIPE) and the Servants of India Society (SIS) over control of a joint bank account and allegations of financial misconduct. This has brought attention back to the legacy and functioning of the historic SIS.

About Servants of India Society (SIS)

• Founded: June 12, 1905
• Founder: Gopal Krishna Gokhale, with G.K. Devadhar, A.V. Patwardhan, and N.A. Dravid
• Location: Fergusson Hill, Pune, Maharashtra
• Headquarters: Pune, with branches in Chennai, Mumbai, Nagpur, Allahabad, etc.

Objectives:

• To train a dedicated cadre of national workers for selfless service to the nation.
• Promote political education, social reform, and public service.
• Work towards upliftment of underprivileged communities, including rural and tribal populations.
• Achieve social change through constitutional and moderate means, not violent agitation.

Membership and Structure:

• Members undergo a five-year training period and vow to serve on modest salaries.
• Considered “young missionaries of Indian nationalism.”
• Notable Members:
  • V.S. Srinivasa Sastri (later president after Gokhale’s death in 1915)
  • Hriday Nath Kunzru
  • A.V. Thakkar

Ideological Basis:

• Strong emphasis on constitutionalism, moderation, and liberalism.
• Aimed to create a disciplined, morally upright civil society to complement political struggle.

About Gopal Krishna Gokhale:

• Born: May 9, 1866 | Died: February 19, 1915
• Moderate leader of the Indian National Congress and a liberal reformer.
• Influenced by Justice M.G. Ranade and Western political thought.
• Advocated for gradual self-governance and saw value in British-initiated modernization.
• Played a pivotal role in the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909).
• Mentor to Mahatma Gandhi and known for his economic insight and powerful oratory.

In News:

11th June 2025 marked the 648th birth anniversary of Sant Kabirdas, one of India’s most revered 15th-century Bhakti saints.

Place of Birth: Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Birth Period: Circa 1440 CE, raised in a Muslim weaver family

Philosophy and Teachings

• Nirguna Bhakti: Kabir rejected idol worship and sectarian divisions, instead preaching devotion to a formless, universal God (Nirguna Brahman).
• Social Reform: He denounced casteism, rituals, and blind faith, stressing ethical conduct, humility, and self-realization.
• Inner Divinity: He believed God resides within and taught seekers to seek truth through introspection (Antar-drishti) rather than temple rituals.
• Language and Style:
  • Composed in Sant Bhasha, a blend of local dialects understood across religions.
  • Created Ulatbansi verses — paradoxical or "upside-down sayings" — challenging conventional wisdom.

Literary Legacy

• Major Works: Bijak, Sakhi Granth, Kabir Granthavali, Anurag Sagar
• Scriptural Inclusion:
  • His verses appear prominently in the Adi Granth Sahib compiled by Guru Arjan Dev.
  • Adopted by various traditions:
    • Kabir Bijak (Kabirpanth, UP)
    • Kabir Granthavali (Dadupanth, Rajasthan)

Impact and Influence

• Kabir Panth: A spiritual sect founded on his teachings, still active in North India.
• Sikhism: Deeply influenced Guru Nanak; Kabir’s dohas are integrated into Guru Granth Sahib.
• Cross-Religious Appeal: Respected by both Hindus and Muslims, he is a symbol of India’s syncretic spiritual culture.
• Other Sects: Influenced Dadu Panthis and Nirguna Bhakti traditions across India.

Contemporary Relevance

• Religious Harmony: In a climate of polarization, Kabir’s teachings offer a path of unity and spiritual inclusivity.
• Social Justice: His resistance to caste hierarchy echoes India’s constitutional values of equality and dignity.
• Sustainable Living: His emphasis on simplicity and contentment aligns with ecological and minimalist principles.
• Spiritual Humanism: He stressed conduct over ritual, making his message resonate across belief systems in today’s pluralistic society.

In News:

On his 125th death anniversary (Balidan Diwas), the Prime Minister of India paid tribute to Bhagwan Birsa Munda, hailing his pioneering role in tribal empowerment and anti-colonial resistance.

Early Life and Identity

• Born: 15 November 1875, Ulihatu, Chotanagpur Plateau (now in Jharkhand).
• Tribe: Munda.
• Title: Revered as “Dharti Aaba” (Father of the Earth).
• Education: Attended Christian missionary schools in Chaibasa; later rejected colonial influence and converted to Vaishnavism, blending it with tribal spirituality.
• Founder of: The Birsait sect, advocating moral reform and cultural awakening among Adivasis.

Role in Freedom Struggle & Tribal Mobilisation

Resistance Against Exploitation:

• Zamindari System: Opposed British-imposed land systems that dismantled the Khuntkatti tribal land tenure, dispossessing tribals and reducing them to bonded labourers.
• Beth Begari: Led resistance against forced labour and revenue policies.
• Forest Rights: Fought against British encroachment and resource extraction in forests.

Cultural and Spiritual Renaissance:

• Condemned social evils like black magic and alcoholism.
• Mobilised tribals using tribal songs, attire, drums, and community gatherings.
• Advocated tribal self-rule and cultural pride against the oppression by Dikus (outsiders).

Ulgulan Movement (1895–1900): The Great Tumult

• Nature: A widespread anti-colonial rebellion across present-day Jharkhand, Odisha, and Bengal.
• Strategy: Guerrilla warfare, targeting British outposts, churches, and police stations.
• Slogan: “Abua Raj setar jana, Maharani Raj tundu jana” (Let the rule of our people begin, let the Queen’s rule end).
• Emphasized a vision of egalitarian tribal raj rooted in indigenous governance systems.

Arrest, Martyrdom, and Legacy

• Arrested: 1895; Died: 9 June 1900 in Ranchi Jail under mysterious circumstances.
• Though the rebellion was crushed, it led to the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908, securing tribal land rights.

Recognition and Legacy

• Declared as “Bhagwan” (Lord) by tribal communities for his cultural leadership and resistance.
• Institutions named in his honour: Birsa Agricultural University, Birsa Institute of Technology, etc.
• November 15 (birth anniversary) declared Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas (Tribal Pride Day) in 2021 by the Government of India.
• Symbol of tribal assertion, indigenous identity, and early resistance to colonialism in India.

In News:

In June 2025, the Madhya Pradesh Government held a special Cabinet meeting at Pachmarhi, renaming the Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary after Raja Bhabhut Singh, a lesser-known but formidable tribal freedom fighter of the 1857 revolt.

About Raja Bhabhut Singh

• Lineage: Belonged to the Jagirdar family of Harrakot Raikheri, descended from Thakur Ajit Singh. His grandfather, Thakur Mohan Singh, had allied with Peshwa Appa Saheb Bhonsle of Nagpur during the 1819–20 resistance against the British.
• Role in 1857 Revolt:
  • A key Gond tribal leader with control over Jabalpur and the Satpura hills.
  • Employed guerrilla warfare tactics in the Satpura forests, using deep geographical knowledge to harass British forces.
  • Maintained close ties with Tatya Tope, a prominent national leader.
• Martyrdom:
  • British deployed the Madras Infantry to capture him.
  • He was executed in 1860, and is remembered in Korku tribal folklore.
  • Known as the "Shivaji of Narmadachal" for his resistance strategies.

Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary (Now Raja Bhabhut Singh Sanctuary)

• Located in the Satpura mountain range, central Madhya Pradesh, within the Deccan Peninsula biogeographic zone.
• Highest point: Dhoopgarh (1,352 m).
• Forms part of the Satpura Tiger Reserve, along with:
  • Satpura National Park
  • Bori Wildlife Sanctuary
• Key Biodiversity Zone in Central India.

Korku Tribe Overview

• Region: Mainly in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Melghat (Maharashtra).
• Occupation: Traditionally agriculturalists; introduced potato and coffee cultivation.
• Society: Patrilineal communities led by traditional headmen.
• Culture:
  • Practice ancestral worship through memorial stones called Munda.
  • Rich in oral traditions, which preserve the memory of tribal icons like Raja Bhabhut Singh.

In News:

An 800-year-old Shiva temple of the later Pandya period has been unearthed at Udampatti, a village in Melur taluk, Madurai district, Tamil Nadu.

Key Highlights:

• Discovery: Foundation of a later Pandya period Shiva temple (dated to 1217–1218 CE) unearthed accidentally by children.

Architectural Insights:

• Only the stone base of the temple (north and south sides) survives.
• Identified as a Shaivite temple using foundation engravings and reference to Silpa Sastram.

Inscriptions & Historical Significance:

• Inscriptions deciphered by C. Santhalingam (Pandya Nadu Centre for Historical Research).
• Temple identified as Thennavanisvaram, located in ancient Attur (present-day Udampatti).
• “Thennavan” was a Pandya royal title, suggesting direct patronage.

Key Inscriptions (1217–18 CE):

• A sale deed records the transfer of a waterbody named Nagankudi along with wet/dry land.
• Seller: Alagaperumal, chieftain of Kalavalinadu
• Buyer: Nambi Perambala Kuthan alias Kangeyan
• Sale amount: 64 kasu (coins)
• Tax revenue from the land assigned to the temple for daily expenses, indicating its financial independence.

Archaeological Relevance:

• Confirms ancient village name (Attur), showcasing socio-economic practices during the Later Pandya period.
• Highlights temple economy, land-water rights, and administrative structures.

Pandya Dynasty

• One of the Three Crowned Tamil Dynasties (alongside Cholas and Cheras).
• Capital: Initially Korkai, later Madurai.
• Early Pandyas active since 4th century BCE; Later Pandyas (1216–1345 CE) saw a golden age under Maravarman Sundara Pandyan.
• Controlled parts of Sri Lanka, Telugu regions, and had trade links with Rome & Southeast Asia.
• Symbol: Fish

Cultural Contributions:

• Patronage of Sangam literature, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism.
• Temples: Meenakshi Temple (Madurai), Nellaiappar Temple (Tirunelveli).
• Promoted Tamil arts, Bharatanatyam, and education.

Decline:

• Succumbed to Chola, Hoysala conflicts and Delhi Sultanate invasions.
• Madurai Sultanate (1335) and later Madurai Nayak dynasty (1529) succeeded their rule.

In News:

On the 300th birth anniversary of Maharani Ahilyabai Holkar, the Prime Minister will participate in the Mahila Sashaktikaran Maha Sammelan in Bhopal to honour her enduring legacy.

Historical Background

• Born: 31 May 1725
• Ruled: Malwa region (1767–1795) as part of the Maratha Confederacy
• Dynasty: Holkar
• Capital: Maheshwar (now in Madhya Pradesh)

Initially serving as a regent, Ahilyabai Holkar became the sovereign ruler after her husband and father-in-law’s deaths. Her rule is widely regarded as the golden age of the Holkar dynasty.

Governance and Administrative Reforms

• Ahilyabai was known for her equitable justice system, exemplified by the sentencing of her own son for a capital crime.
• She abolished discriminatory practices, such as the law confiscating property from childless widows.
• Courts for dispute resolution were established, and she remained accessible to the public, holding daily audiences.
• She broke gender norms by not observing purdah, a rare move for female rulers of the time.

Military Leadership

• Trained under Malhar Rao Holkar, she led her forces in battle.
• Appointed Tukoji Rao Holkar (Malhar Rao’s adopted son) as army commander.
• In 1792, she engaged a French officer, Chevalier Dudrenec, to modernize her army by establishing four battalions.

Cultural and Architectural Contributions

• A patron of literature and arts, she invited scholars like Moropant, Ananta Gandhi, and Khushali Ram to her court.
• Promoted craft and industry, notably founding the Maheshwar textile industry—famous today for Maheshwari sarees.
• Commissioned the construction and restoration of hundreds of Hindu temples and dharamshalas across India.
• Her most iconic act was the renovation of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi in 1780.
• Also contributed to infrastructure development, including roads, wells, forts, and rest houses.

Titles and Recognition

• Referred to as ‘Punyashlok’, meaning one as pure as sacred chants.
• British historian John Keay called her the ‘Philosopher Queen’.

Demise and Succession

Ahilyabai passed away on 13 August 1795 at the age of 70. She was succeeded by Tukoji Rao Holkar, who later abdicated in favour of Jaswant Rao Holkar. Jaswant Rao remained the last Holkar to rule independently until 1804.

In News:

During a recent diplomatic visit, Prime Minister Narendra Modi gifted French President Emmanuel Macron and the First Lady symbolic Indian artifacts — a Dokra artwork and a silver hand-engraved mirror — showcasing India’s rich heritage of tribal and fine metal craftsmanship.

Key Highlights:

Dokra Art: A Living Tradition

• Dokra, also known as Dhokra, is a non-ferrous metal casting craft that employs the lost-wax technique, practiced for over 4,000 years.
• It is predominantly practiced by Ojha metalsmiths and DhokraDamar tribes, across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, and Telangana.
• Notable for its seamless brass sculptures, each Dokra artifact is cast using a single-use clay and wax mould, ensuring that no two pieces are identical.
• Dokra items include figurines, utensils, jewelry, and religious motifs, often reflecting tribal life and nature.

Historical Significance:

• The “Dancing Girl” of Mohenjo-Daro (from the Harappan Civilization) is considered one of the earliest examples of Dokra-style metal casting, underlining its archaeological and civilizational importance.

Craftsmanship Features:

• The casting process takes nearly a month per piece, reflecting the labour-intensive and skilled nature of the art.
• Dokra is globally recognized for its sustainability, aesthetic uniqueness, and its ability to merge function with folklore.