In News:

• The Climate Risk Index (CRI) 2025, published by the international environmental think tank Germanwatch, ranks countries based on their vulnerability to extreme weather events, assessing both human and economic losses due to climate-induced disasters.
• The index, which has been released annually since 2006, covers a 30-year period, evaluating the impact of extreme weather events in terms of economic losses, fatalities, and the number of affected people.

Key Findings:

• Global Impact: From 1993 to 2022, more than 9,400 extreme weather events occurred globally, resulting in 765,000 fatalities and USD 4.2 trillion in economic losses. Heatwaves, droughts, and floods were the leading causes of fatalities and displacement, with heatwaves alone claiming 61,778 lives (83% of fatalities) in 2022. Droughts affected the largest number of people, with 59% of the global population impacted during the past three decades.
• India's Position: India ranks as the 6th most affected country in the world by climate change between 1993 and 2022, suffering significant losses. During this period, the country experienced over 400 extreme weather events, including floods, heatwaves, cyclones, and droughts, causing a loss of USD 180 billion in economic damages and leading to at least 80,000 fatalities (10% of global deaths).

Some notable extreme weather events include:

• • Cyclones: Gujarat (1998), Odisha (1999), Hudhud (2014), and Amphan (2020).
  • Floods: Uttarakhand (2013), Jammu and Kashmir (2014), and Kerala (2018).
  • Heatwaves: Intense temperatures exceeding 50°C in 1998, 2002, 2003, and 2015.

Methodology of the Climate Risk Index

The CRI assesses the impact of extreme weather events across three hazard categories:

1. Hydrological (floods, landslides),
2. Meteorological (storms, cyclones),
3. Climatological (heatwaves, droughts).

The six key indicators used for the ranking are:

• Economic loss
• Fatalities
• Affecting population, assessed in both absolute and relative terms.

Climate Risk and Its Implications for India

India’s vulnerability to climate change is highlighted by frequent and intense extreme weather events. The country faces risks from:

• Floods: Regular heavy monsoons lead to significant displacement and damage to infrastructure and agriculture.
• Cyclones: Rising sea levels and warming oceans increase the frequency and intensity of cyclones.
• Heatwaves: India experiences rising temperatures, with heatwaves becoming more intense, contributing to health crises.
• Droughts: A growing concern, affecting agriculture and water resources.

Additionally, the Asia-Pacific Climate Report 2024 projects that India may face a 24.7% GDP loss by 2070 due to climate change impacts, driven by rising sea levels and decreasing labor productivity.

Global Challenges in Climate Change Mitigation

• Historical Responsibility vs. Future Emissions: Developed nations, despite having contributed more to global emissions historically, are pressuring emerging economies like India to take greater responsibility for climate action. This has led to tensions over burden-sharing and the need for climate finance.
• Global Temperature Breach: In 2024, the world breached the 1.5°C threshold for a full year, highlighting the inadequacy of current mitigation efforts. Projections indicate a global temperature increase of 2.6-3.1°C by 2100 if current trends continue.
• Weak Commitments and Insufficient Finance: Many countries have not updated their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and the USD 300 billion annual funding promised for developing nations is insufficient to meet climate adaptation and mitigation needs.

India's Climate Adaptation Challenges and Suggestions

India faces several climate adaptation challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, insufficient funding, and a lack of robust policy frameworks for disaster risk management. To enhance adaptation efforts, the following measures are suggested:

• Enhanced Climate Finance: Developing countries need greater financial and technical support to manage and adapt to climate-induced losses.
• Strengthening Mitigation Efforts: Nations, including India, must scale up their NDCs to restrict global warming to 1.5°C or lower.
• Accountability of High-Income Countries: Developed nations must expedite mitigation actions and increase financial contributions to support climate-vulnerable countries like India.

In News:

A new study has revealed that the coral reefs in the Gulf of Eilat (also known as the Gulf of Aqaba) faced a 3,000-year growth shutdown due to global cooling. However, these reefs later recovered naturally from deeper waters, demonstrating resilience in the face of environmental changes.

About the Gulf of Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba)

• Location: The Gulf of Eilat is a northern extension of the Red Sea, positioned east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. It is strategically significant and is also known as the Gulf of Aqaba.
• Neighbouring Nations: The Gulf shares its coastline with four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.
• Geographical Features:
  • The Gulf includes important cities like Taba (Egypt), Eilat (Israel), and Aqaba (Jordan), all located at the Gulf’s northernmost point.
  • It has a maximum depth of 1,850 meters, making it much deeper than the adjacent Gulf of Suez.
  • The Gulf forms the southern end of the Dead Sea Transform, a significant tectonic fault zone, contributing to its unique geological and environmental features.
• Coral Ecosystem: The Gulf of Eilat is home to the world’s northernmost coral reefs. Despite facing various environmental challenges, these reefs have shown remarkable resilience over the years, highlighting their ability to adapt to changing conditions.

Environmental Challenges and Recovery

• The 3,000-year growth shutdown of the coral reefs in the Gulf of Eilat was primarily driven by global cooling. This climatic phenomenon significantly impacted the growth of the reefs, causing a temporary halt in their development. However, the coral ecosystems in the Gulf have since recovered naturally, drawing from deeper waters to rebuild and thrive once again.
• This recovery underscores the resilience of coral ecosystems despite adverse environmental conditions. It also provides valuable insights into how these ecosystems can recover when given the opportunity, even after significant disruptions caused by global climate changes.

Implications for Coral Reef Conservation

• The study's findings emphasize the importance of understanding the adaptive capacity of coral reefs, which are among the most vulnerable ecosystems to climate change.
• The ability of coral reefs in the Gulf of Eilat to recover after a prolonged period of cooling demonstrates that marine ecosystems can endure long-term environmental stress if they are allowed to regenerate naturally.
• This has significant implications for global coral conservation efforts, which must focus on creating conditions that allow reefs to adapt and recover from environmental stresses, including global warming, ocean acidification, and pollution.
• The Gulf of Eilat’s coral reefs provide an important case study for understanding ecological resilience and the potential for natural recovery in marine ecosystems.

In News:

The Fulani, one of Africa’s largest and most dispersed ethnic communities, trace their ancestry to the ‘Green Sahara’ period (12,000–5,000 years ago), according to recent genetic and anthropological research. This period, when the Sahara was a fertile, habitable landscape, marks the early development of African pastoralism.

The Fulani population is estimated at 40 million, spread across West and Central Africa, from Senegal and Guinea in the west to Lake Chad in the east. They are particularly concentrated in Nigeria, Mali, Guinea, Senegal, and Niger, and inhabit the Sahel-Savannah belt, straddling arid and semi-arid regions.

Nomadic Lifestyle and Social Structure

Traditionally known for their nomadic pastoralism, the Fulani have maintained a unique socio-cultural identity despite centuries of migration and contact with other African populations. Their society is internally diverse, divided into three main groups:

• Makiyaya: Nomadic herders
• FulaninSoro: Town dwellers
• Bararo: Forest dwellers, with strong ties to ancestral rituals and nature-based belief systems

Fulani communities are largely egalitarian, with a deep emphasis on kinship, family structure, and communal responsibility. Polygamy is widely practiced, and marriage ceremonies are elaborate, often involving intricate rituals and festive celebrations.

Women’s Role and Cultural Expression

Fulani women are recognized for their weaving, artisanal craftsmanship, and particularly their hairstyles, which are often elaborately styled and adorned with beads and cowrie shells—symbols of both identity and aesthetic tradition.

Linguistic and Religious Identity

The Fulani speak Fula (also called Fulfulde or Pulaar), a language belonging to the Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Though largely Muslim, many retain spiritual connections with nature-based traditions, particularly among the Bararo groups.

Genetic Heritage and Historical Significance

A recent multinational study led by Uppsala University and Charles University analyzed biological and anthropological data from 460 Fulani individuals across 18 locations in seven African countries. It confirmed a complex genetic history, shaped by:

• Ancient North African ancestry, particularly linked to populations akin to modern-day Berbers of Morocco
• Historical interactions with West, Central, and East African communities
• A shared ancestral genetic component, likely rooted in early pastoral communities of the Green Sahara era

The research underscores that despite their high mobility and limited archaeological footprint, the Fulani have preserved a distinct genetic and cultural identity for millennia.

In News:

The Aroma Mission, also known as the Lavender Revolution, is emerging as a transformative initiative for regions like Jammu & Kashmir and the North East, prioritised under Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s vision for inclusive development.

It aims to harness the untapped potential of India’s biodiverse regions through the scientific cultivation of aromatic crops and production of essential oils, with the dual goals of economic upliftment and sustainable innovation.

Key Objectives and Features:

• Launched By: Ministry of Science & Technology
• Nodal Agency: CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow
• Started In: Jammu & Kashmir, now extended to the North East
• Known As: Lavender Revolution
• Purpose: Boost India’s aroma industry by promoting the cultivation of high-value aromatic crops and increasing the production of essential oils.

Major Focus Areas:

• Crops Cultivated: Lavender, lemongrass, citronella, palmarosa, vetiver, patchouli, rose, peppermint, and chamomile
• Target Sectors: Cosmetics, aromatherapy, pharmaceuticals, and food flavouring industries

Impact and Achievements:

• Over 5,000 hectares brought under aromatic crop cultivation in the North East.
• Establishment of 39 essential oil distillation units.
• Distribution of 1 lakh agarwood saplings planned to boost the region's share in global aromatic plant trade.
• Expected annual essential oil production: 2,000 tonnes, valued at over ?300 crores.
• Estimated to generate 60 lakh man-days of rural employment.
• Projected increase in farmers’ income by ?60,000–?70,000 per hectare annually.

Institutional Support: IICON – Incubation and Innovation Complex

• Location: CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology (CSIR-NEIST), Jorhat, Assam
• Launched By: Dr. Jitendra Singh (Minister of Science & Technology)
• Purpose: Provide technical assistance, advanced facilities, and business incubation support for startups, MSMEs, and SHGs.
• Facilities: Access to 27 cutting-edge technologies for up to two years to help refine production and marketing strategies.

Integrated Development Approach:

The Aroma Mission exemplifies the “whole-of-government” approach, aligning with various flagship programmes such as:

• Start-Up India
• MSME Development
• Doubling Farmers’ Income
• Women Empowerment (e.g., through Rural Women Technology Parks)
• Act East Policy (enhancing North East's connectivity and trade potential)

Over 25 startups and self-help groups have already been empowered through access to facilities and entrepreneurial training at IICON, contributing to local innovation ecosystems.

Strategic Significance:

• Regional Empowerment: Converts underutilised natural resources into economic assets, especially in remote regions like J&K and the North East.
• Environmental Sustainability: Encourages eco-friendly cultivation and reduces pressure on traditional farming.
• Economic Diversification: Supports India’s transition to a bio-economy, with aromatic plant industries offering export potential and rural employment.
• Vision India@2047: Positions the North East as a hub for biotechnology, essential oils, innovation, and trade, aligning with long-term national growth goals.

In News:

The Rushikulya river mouth in Odisha is witnessing the anticipated mass nesting of Olive Ridley turtles — a critical event for the survival of this vulnerable marine species. This phenomenon, known as arribada, highlights the ecological significance of India’s coastal biodiversity and the urgent need for marine conservation.

About Olive Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea)

• Taxonomy:
  • Scientific Name: Lepidochelys olivacea
  • Class: Reptilia
  • Family: Cheloniidae
• Physical Features: These turtles are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtle species. They are recognized by their olive or grayish-green heart-shaped carapace. Males and females are similar in size, though females have slightly rounder shells.
• Habitat and Distribution: Olive Ridleys are found in warm, tropical waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, inhabiting both open ocean (pelagic) and coastal waters.

Mass Nesting: The Arribada Phenomenon

• Arribada (Spanish for "arrival") refers to the synchronized mass nesting behavior where thousands of females gather on a single beach to lay eggs.
• Nesting occurs annually between December and March, after long migrations of up to 9,000 km. Each female may lay 90–120 eggs, 1 to 3 times per season.
• Temperature-dependent sex determination influences hatchling sex ratios.
• After nesting, females return to the sea, leaving eggs buried in sand.

Major Nesting Sites in India

• Odisha Coast is the most significant nesting ground in India and globally:
  • Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary: World’s largest mass nesting site.
  • Rushikulya River Mouth: Second-largest nesting beach in India.
  • Devi River Mouth: Another key nesting site in Odisha.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands have recently emerged as a new mass nesting area, with over 5,000 nests reported in one season.

Ecological Role and Behavior

• Diet: Omnivorous — they feed on jellyfish, crabs, snails, prawns, molluscs, algae, and small fish.
• Behavior: These turtles undertake long migrations annually between feeding and breeding grounds, spending most of their lives at sea.

Protection Status

• IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
• CITES: Appendix I
• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (India): Schedule I (highest protection)

Threats to Survival

• Bycatch in Fishing Gear: Accidental entanglement in trawls, gillnets, and longlines.
• Habitat Loss: Coastal development for ports, tourism, and industry disrupts nesting beaches.
• Poaching: Turtles and their eggs are harvested for meat, shell, and leather.
• Pollution: Plastic ingestion and marine debris pose severe health risks.
• Climate Change: Rising sea levels and increased sand temperatures impact nesting and hatchling sex ratios.

Conservation Initiatives

• Operation Olivia: Initiated by the Indian Coast Guard in the 1980s to protect turtles during nesting and prevent illegal fishing.
• Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs): Mandated by the Odisha government in trawl nets; allow turtles to escape while retaining fish catch.
• Tagging Programs: Use of non-corrosive metal tags to study migration patterns and inform conservation strategies.

In News:

The Global Investment Trends Monitor Report 2024, released by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), highlights a concerning decline in international project finance and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), particularly in developing economies. This has significant implications for sustainable development, especially in emerging economies like India.

Key Findings from the UNCTAD Report (2024)

Global FDI Trends:

• Global FDI flows, after adjusting for conduit economies, fell by 8% in 2024, despite a nominal increase to USD 1.4 trillion.
• Developed economies witnessed a 15% drop in FDI (excluding conduit economies like Ireland and Luxembourg), while developing economies saw a 2% decline.
• The decline threatens long-term investment in infrastructure, renewable energy, and other SDG-aligned sectors.

Project Finance and Greenfield Investment:

• International project finance declined by 29% in developed and 23% in developing economies.
• In terms of value, developing economies faced a sharper fall of 33%.
• Key countries like India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, and Mexico reported steeper declines than the global average.
• Greenfield investments fell 6% in developing regions, with Africa and Asia being worst affected.

Sectoral Impacts:

• Investments in SDG-related sectors (e.g., water, sanitation, agrifood systems, and infrastructure) declined by 11%.
• International renewable energy finance fell 16%, with North America (-22%) and developing Asia (-18%) seeing notable contractions.
• Africa was the only region to witness an 8% increase in renewable energy project finance.

India’s FDI Landscape: Trends, Opportunities, and Challenges

Recent Performance:

• Between April 2000 and September 2024, India received over USD 1 trillion in cumulative FDI.
• From 2014 to 2024, India attracted USD 667.4 billion, a 119% increase over the previous decade.
• In 2024, India’s greenfield projects grew, but international project finance fell 23% in number and 33% in value.

Regulatory Framework:

• FDI is regulated under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999, administered by DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
• Prohibited sectors: Atomic energy, betting, lotteries, chit funds, tobacco, and real estate (excluding construction development).

Outlook for 2025 and Strategic Opportunities

Global FDI Projections:

• UNCTAD anticipates moderate global FDI growth in 2025.
• Regions like ASEAN, Eastern Europe, and Central America may benefit from supply chain realignments.
• India is projected to see a moderate rise in FDI, aided by:
  • Improved financing conditions,
  • Mergers and acquisitions,
  • Ongoing policy reforms.

Key Growth Sectors:

• High potential in AI, cloud computing, cybersecurity, electric vehicles, and green hydrogen.
• FDI will be influenced by geopolitical dynamics, interest rates, GDP growth, and technological transitions.

FDI in India: Opportunities and Challenges

Opportunities:

• Large consumer base (1.4 billion population) and young workforce (65% under 35).
• Government schemes like Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat incentivize foreign investment.
• Strategic location positions India as a gateway to South Asia, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.

Challenges:

• Regulatory complexity, including retrospective taxation and bureaucratic delays.
• Infrastructure deficits, particularly outside urban hubs.
• Rigid labour laws and inconsistent policy enforcement.

Investor Expectations:

• Technology transfer in priority sectors.
• Employment generation to absorb India’s growing labor force.
• Sustainable investments in line with India’s climate commitments under the National Action Plan on Climate Change.

In News:

A three-year study was conducted on a 23-hectare DDT-contaminated former tree nursery in southern Sweden. Researchers mixed biochar into sections of the contaminated soil and planted different crops, including pumpkins, legumes, grasses, and willows.

Key findings:

• Reduction of DDT Uptake: The presence of biochar reduced DDT absorption by soil organisms, cutting the toxin uptake by earthworms in half.
• Enhanced Soil Health: Biochar improved soil structure, fertility, and microbial activity.
• Cost-Effective Alternative: Unlike traditional soil removal methods, which are expensive and labor-intensive, biochar treatment offers a sustainable and economical approach.
• Support for Renewable Energy: The method allows for the growth of bioenergy crops such as willow trees, further contributing to environmental benefits.

Implications for Future Agricultural Practices

This breakthrough provides a viable approach to rehabilitate contaminated lands worldwide. Many regions, including India, still grapple with DDT contamination. While India banned agricultural use of DDT in 1972, it continues to be used for disease control under strict regulations. The application of biochar could significantly aid in soil restoration and sustainable land management

About DDT

• Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a synthetic insecticide first introduced in 1939. It was widely used in agriculture and public health initiatives to control vector-borne diseases like malaria.
• However, despite its effectiveness against pests, DDT’s persistence in the environment led to severe ecological and health concerns.
• It degrades slowly, accumulates in fatty tissues, and disrupts ecosystems by affecting soil fertility, harming wildlife, and posing potential human health risks, including endocrine disruption and carcinogenic effects.

Challenges Posed by DDT-Contaminated Soils

The prolonged use of DDT has resulted in extensive soil contamination, making land infertile and unsuitable for cultivation. Conventional methods of decontamination, such as soil excavation and disposal, are expensive and environmentally unsustainable.

Biochar as a Solution

Researchers at Sweden’s Chalmers University of Technology have developed an innovative method to restore DDT-contaminated soils by integrating biochar.

What is Biochar?

Biochar is a charcoal-like material produced by burning organic waste in a controlled oxygen-limited environment (pyrolysis). It is known for its ability to enhance soil quality, bind contaminants, and store carbon for extended periods.

In News:

The World Economic Forum (WEF) recently released the Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025 report. The report examines cybersecurity trends, key challenges, and necessary strategies to enhance global cyber resilience.

About Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025

Produced in collaboration with Accenture, the report highlights major cybersecurity issues influenced by geopolitical tensions, emerging technologies, supply chain complexities, and cybercrime advancements.

Key Issues Highlighted

• Geopolitical Conflicts:

• Ongoing conflicts, such as the Russia-Ukraine war, have increased cyber vulnerabilities in critical sectors like energy, telecommunications, and nuclear power.
• Nearly 60% of organizations state that geopolitical tensions have impacted their cybersecurity strategies.

• Cybersecurity Readiness:

• Two-thirds of organizations foresee AI impacting cybersecurity, yet only one-third have the tools to assess AI-related risks.
• Smaller organizations face significant challenges in adopting AI-driven security measures.

• Cyber Skills Gap:

• As of 2024, there is a shortage of 4.8 million cybersecurity professionals globally.
• Only 14% of organizations have a skilled workforce to manage current cybersecurity threats.
• Public-sector organizations are notably impacted, with 49% reporting a shortage in cybersecurity talent.

• Supply Chain Interdependencies:

• Over 50% of large organizations identify supply chain complexity as a barrier to cyber resilience.
• Vulnerabilities in third-party software, cyberattacks, and enforcement issues in security standards are key concerns.

• Cybercrime Sophistication:

• Cybercriminals are increasingly leveraging generative AI tools for automated and personalized attacks, including phishing and social engineering.
• In 2024, 42% of organizations experienced phishing and deepfake attacks.

• Regulatory Challenges: 70% of organizations reported that complex cybersecurity regulations cause compliance issues.

Impacts

• Critical Infrastructure:
  • Cyberattacks on essential infrastructure, such as water utilities, satellites, and power grids, pose severe risks to public safety.
  • Example: A 2024 cyberattack on a U.S. water utility disrupted operations, highlighting vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure systems.
• Biosecurity Risks:
  • Advancements in AI, cyberattacks, and genetic engineering create risks for bio-laboratories and research institutions.
  • Incidents in South Africa and the UK underscore these threats.
• Economic Disparities: Developed regions like Europe and North America demonstrate stronger cyber resilience compared to emerging economies such as Africa and Latin America.
• Transition Issues to Renewable Energy (RE): The shift to renewable energy introduces new cybersecurity risks, making power grids attractive targets for cybercriminals.

Factors Increasing Cybersecurity Complexity

• Supply Chain Vulnerabilities: Increasingly complex supply chains create risks with limited oversight, enabling cyberattacks to spread across interconnected systems.
• Geopolitical Tensions: Conflicts have driven advanced cyber strategies targeting critical infrastructure.
• AI-Driven Threats: Generative AI enables scalable malware deployment and sophisticated multilingual social engineering attacks.
• Cyber Skills Gap: A growing 8% skills gap leaves two-thirds of organizations unable to meet cybersecurity demands.
• Convergence of Cybercrime and Organized Crime: Rising cyber-enabled fraud has attracted organized crime groups, amplifying social impact.
• Climate-Linked Cyber Risks: Energy grids are increasingly targeted due to their reliance on evolving energy systems.
• Quantum Vulnerabilities: Quantum computing poses risks to public-key encryption, which is essential for securing digital systems.

Way Forward

Strategic Investment:

• Cybersecurity must be viewed as a strategic investment rather than a technical expense.
• Governments are encouraged to modernize legacy systems and upgrade operational technologies to protect critical sectors.

Public-Private Collaboration:

• Collaboration between business and cybersecurity leaders is essential for sharing threat intelligence and enhancing resilience.
• Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) may require government incentives to enhance cybersecurity.

Skills Development: Expanding specialized training programs, certifications, and incentives is crucial to addressing the cybersecurity skills gap.

Focus on Resilience Over Prevention: Nations must prioritize resilience by enhancing response mechanisms, crisis management frameworks, and ensuring continuity of services.

International Cooperation:

• Collaborative efforts through forums like the United Nations (UN) and G20 can strengthen global cybersecurity frameworks.
• Developed nations should assist emerging economies in improving cyber resilience.

Current Framework for Cybersecurity in India

• Legislative Measures:
  • Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act)
  • Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023
• Institutional Framework:
  • Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In)
  • National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC)
  • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)
  • Cyber Swachhta Kendra
• Strategic Initiatives:
  • Bharat National Cybersecurity Exercise 2024
  • National Cyber Security Policy, 2013
• Sector-Specific Regulations:
  • Cybersecurity Framework for SEBI Regulated Entities
  • Telecommunications (Critical Telecommunication Infrastructure) Rules, 2024

In News:

Iran has announced plans to relocate its capital from Tehran to the Makran coastal region due to economic and environmental concerns.

Reasons Behind Relocation

• Overcrowding and Resource Constraints: Tehran, the capital for over 200 years since the Qajar dynasty (1794-1925), faces overpopulation, air pollution, water scarcity, and energy shortages.
• Strategic Importance of Makran: Located in Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Makran’s proximity to the Gulf of Oman enhances its potential for economic development.
• Economic and Maritime Significance: Home to key ports like Chabahar, Makran is vital for Iran’s petroleum reserves and coastal trade.
• Geopolitical Considerations: The development of Makran as an international trade hub could strengthen Iran’s economic ties with Central Asia and the Indian Ocean region.

About Makran

• Geographical Overview: A semi-desert coastal plateau shared by Pakistan and Iran, bordered by the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman.
• Key Ports and Trade Routes: Gwadar (Pakistan) and Chabahar (Iran) serve as critical gateways to the Strait of Hormuz, a global oil supply route.

Alexander’s Invasion and Makran’s Historical Significance

Background of Alexander’s Invasion (327–325 BCE)

• Entry into India: Alexander, King of Macedonia (336-323 BCE), entered India via the Khyber Pass after conquering Kabul.
• Key Battles:
  • Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum): Faced and defeated King Porus, later reinstating him as an ally.
  • Retreat at Hyphasis (Beas River): His army, exhausted and wary of the Nanda Empire’s strength, refused to march further east.

The Gedrosian Desert March

• Extreme Hardships: While retreating through the Makran Desert, Alexander lost a third of his army to dehydration, starvation, and exhaustion.
• Comparison with Cyrus the Great: Unlike Cyrus II, who failed to cross the desert, Alexander’s army endured the harsh terrain, albeit with heavy casualties.

Impact of Alexander’s Invasion on India

• Cultural and Trade Exchanges: Facilitated early Indo-Greek interactions and opened key trade routes linking South Asia and Europe.
• Greek Settlements: Established cities like Alexandria (Kabul) and Boukephala (Jhelum), influencing local governance and trade.
• Mauryan Expansion: Weakened regional rulers enabled Chandragupta Maurya to establish the Mauryan Empire.
• Influence on Art and Culture: Indo-Greek fusion led to the Gandhara School of Art, integrating Greek and Indian artistic traditions.

In News:

Preserving India’s sacred groves can help country achieve its conservation & climate goals.

Sacred Groves in India:

• Sacred groves are forest patches that are culturally and spiritually important for various communities.
• They are known by different names across India: sarnas in Jharkhand, devgudis in Chhattisgarh, and orans in Rajasthan.
• Groves vary in size from small clusters of trees to expansive forests covering several acres.

Threats to Sacred Groves:

• Sacred groves are increasingly under threat due to deforestation, mining, and development activities.
• Many sacred groves are being displaced or degraded, putting biodiversity and cultural practices at risk.

Ecological and Cultural Importance:

• Sacred groves are rich in biodiversity and serve as important carbon sinks, contributing to climate change mitigation.
• They have been maintained by indigenous communities for centuries, creating a deep connection between people and nature.
• Sacred groves also play a crucial role in preserving indigenous spiritual practices and cultural heritage.

Contribution to Climate and Conservation Goals:

• India’s climate commitment of achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 requires the protection of forests, including sacred groves.
• Sacred groves, when properly managed, can help in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation.
• Preserving these groves can support forest conservation and foster coexistence with wildlife, ensuring a balance between development and environmental preservation.

Role of Indigenous Communities:

• Indigenous communities have long used sacred groves to regulate the use of forest resources and ensure environmental sustainability.
• Before modern ecological concepts, sacred groves were seen as natural conservation practices guided by spiritual beliefs.
• This traditional wisdom can be leveraged to enhance conservation efforts in India.

Examples of Successful Sacred Grove Conservation:

• Waghoba Grove in Maharashtra:
  • Located in Chinchwadi village, the Taata chi Vanrai grove is dedicated to Waghoba, the tiger deity, and covers eight acres.
  • Local communities, including the Thakars, have successfully resisted illegal timber extraction and helped conserve the grove, witnessing the return of wildlife like leopards.
  • Worship of Waghoba has played a significant role in preserving forest patches and fostering human-animal coexistence.
• Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve:
  • Sacred groves around the Tadoba Reserve, dedicated to Waghoba, are important in reducing human-wildlife conflicts by promoting spiritual ties with the forest.

Government and Community Efforts:

• The Jharkhand government introduced the concept of gherabandi (boundary walls) in 2019 to conserve sacred groves.
• In Chhattisgarh, the renovation of sacred groves has been undertaken to protect and restore these areas.
• Despite these efforts, challenges remain in involving local communities and integrating sacred groves into broader conservation policies.

The Role of OECMs in Sacred Grove Conservation:

• Sacred groves are considered part of Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs), which are areas conserved for biodiversity outside protected regions.
• OECMs recognize the cultural, spiritual, and socio-economic value of these areas and promote sustainable conservation practices that benefit both biodiversity and local communities.
• Sacred groves play an essential role in achieving long-term biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services.

In News:

Recently released, World Bank’s "International Debt Report 2024" highlights a worsening debt crisis for developing nations, with 2023 marking the highest debt servicing levels in two decades, driven by rising interest rates and economic challenges.

Key Highlights:

Rising Debt Levels:

• Total external debt of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) reached $8.8 trillion by the end of 2023, an 8% increase since 2020.
• For IDA-eligible countries (those receiving concessional loans from the World Bank), external debt rose by 18%, reaching $1.1 trillion.

Debt Servicing Costs:

• Developing nations paid a record $1.4 trillion in debt servicing costs (principal and interest) in 2023.
• Interest payments surged by 33%, totaling $406 billion, putting immense pressure on national budgets, especially in critical sectors like health, education, and environmental sustainability.

Interest Rate Increases:

• Interest rates on loans from official creditors doubled to 4% in 2023.
• Rates from private creditors rose to 6%, the highest in 15 years, exacerbating the financial burden on developing countries.

Impact on IDA-Eligible Countries:

• IDA countries faced severe financial strain, paying $96.2 billion in debt servicing, including $34.6 billion in record-high interest costs (four times higher than a decade ago).
• On average, 6% of their export earnings were allocated to debt payments, with some countries dedicating up to 38%.

Role of Creditors:

• Private creditors reduced lending, leading to more debt-servicing payments than new loans.
• In contrast, multilateral lenders like the World Bank provided additional support, with the World Bank contributing $28.1 billion.
• Multilateral institutions have emerged as crucial support systems, becoming "lenders of last resort" for poor economies.

Debt Data Transparency:

• Efforts to improve debt transparency led to nearly 70% of IDA-eligible economies publishing accessible public-debt data in 2023, a 20-point increase since 2020.
• Accurate debt data can reduce corruption and promote sustainable investment.

Global Financial Reforms:

• There is a growing call for global financial reforms to address the systemic challenges of developing nations facing rising debt burdens.
• Proposed measures include increased concessional financing, improved restructuring mechanisms, and the establishment of a Global Debt Authority for better debt management.

Impact on Climate and Development Goals:

• Debt servicing has become a larger financial burden than climate initiatives in many countries, with developing nations spending more on debt servicing than climate goals (2.4% of GDP vs. 2.1% for climate investments).
• To meet climate commitments under the Paris Agreement, climate investments would need to rise to 6.9% of GDP by 2030.

Debt Relief Initiatives:

• Programs like the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative and the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) provide debt relief to the world’s poorest nations, helping them meet Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• For instance, Somalia saved $4.5 billion in debt service after completing the HIPC program in December 2023.

Global Sovereign Debt Roundtable (GSDR):

• The GSDR brings together debtor nations and creditors (both official and private) to improve debt sustainability and address restructuring challenges.
• Co-chaired by the IMF, World Bank, and G20, the forum aims to find coordinated solutions for sovereign debt issues.

In News:

• GMP was launched at COP29, on Energy Day, by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the Climate Club.
• Aimed at accelerating industrial decarbonisation in heavy-emitting industries of emerging and developing economies (EMDEs).
• The platform addresses the annual funding gap of US$125 billion required to achieve net-zero emissions goals.

Key Highlights:

Support Mechanism:

• GMP operates as a support mechanism for the Climate Club, with the secretariat hosted by UNIDO.
• Activities are supported by the interim secretariat of the OECD and the International Energy Agency (IEA).

Key Objectives:

• Match country-specific decarbonisation needs with global technical and financial resources.
• Facilitate the decarbonisation of energy and emissions-intensive industrial sectors, such as steel, cement, chemicals, and aluminium.
• Offer assistance in policy development, technology transfer, and investment facilitation to promote low-carbon industrial practices.

Global Participation:

• Countries like Germany, Chile, Uruguay, Turkey, Bangladesh, and Indonesia are actively involved.
• Non-state actors include UNIDO, World Bank, Climate Investment Funds (CIF), and GIZ, supporting the platform’s initiatives.

Funding Gap:

• Industrial decarbonisation requires an increase in investments from US$15 billion (current) to US$70 billion by 2030, and US$125 billion by 2050, especially for sectors like steel and cement.

Climate Club Work Programme (2025-26):

• The GMP is part of the Climate Club's new work programme for 2025-26, focusing on:
  • Advancing ambitious climate change mitigation policies.
  • Transforming industries through decarbonisation.
  • Boosting international climate cooperation.

Industrial Decarbonisation:

• Decarbonisation refers to reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from industrial activities.
• Key sectors for decarbonisation include petroleum refining, chemical manufacturing, iron and steel, cement production, and the food and beverage sector.

Support for EMDEs:

• The platform focuses on helping emerging and developing economies overcome challenges such as lack of resources, technology, and capacity to adopt cleaner industrial methods.
• Climate finance is crucial to pilot and scale low-carbon technologies in these regions.

Future Role of GMP:

• The GMP will play a critical role in incorporating industrial decarbonisation into countries’ Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for COP30.
• The platform aims to accelerate progress by connecting developing countries with finance, technology, and expertise to transition to low-emission industries.

In News:

• A deep depression in the Southwest Bay of Bengal, 800 km south of Chennai and 500 km from Nagapattinam, is expected to become Cyclone Fengal within the next 24 hours.
• It is anticipated to move north-northwest towards Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.

Key Highlights:

Cyclone Fengal Naming:

• If the depression intensifies into a cyclone, it will be named Fengal, as suggested by Saudi Arabia.
• Fengal will follow Cyclone Dana, which made landfall in Odisha in October 2024.

Cyclone Naming Process:

• Panel Members: Cyclones in the North Indian Ocean are named by a panel of 13 countries under the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
• Member countries include Bangladesh, India, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, the UAE, and Yemen.
• Process: Each member submits a list of 13 names, creating a rotational naming system. Names are assigned sequentially as cyclones form. Once used, a name is retired and not reused.

Cyclone Fengal’s Potential Impact:

• Fengal is expected to bring strong winds, heavy rainfall, and possible coastal flooding.
• The system’s trajectory is being closely monitored, and preparedness measures are being implemented.

Terminology of Tropical Cyclones:

Terminology                                Region                                                                                         Impact Areas

Typhoons                                      China Sea, Pacific Ocean                                      Japan, China, Philippines

Hurricanes                                   Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean                           United States, Mexico,

                                                                                                                                      Caribbean nations

Tornadoes                                    Guinea Lands (West Africa), Southern USA       Southern USA, West Africa

Willy-willies                                 Northwestern Australia                                          Australia (especially

                                                                                                                                       Northwestern region)

In News:

• The State Fisheries Department in Kerala launched a sea ranching project by releasing 20,000 pompano (Trachinotus blochii) fingerlings off the Vizhinjam coast as part of the artificial reef project.
• Coordinates: The fingerlings were released near artificial reef modules placed 1.5 nautical miles off the coast.
• Follow-up to Artificial Reef Project: The release of fingerlings is a follow-up to the artificial reef project aimed at replenishing marine fishery resources and promoting sustainable fishing practices.

Project Details

• Fingerling Release: The first batch of 20,000 pompano was released as part of the broader initiative to release 10 lakh fingerlings (pompano and cobia) at 10 locations along the Thiruvananthapuram coast.
• Location and Quantity: At each location, 1 lakh fingerlings will be released, where artificial reefs have already been deployed under the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY).
• Reef Design: Artificial reefs consist of 150 reef modules (triangular, flower, and pipe-shaped) created at 42 locations off 33 fishing villages in the Thiruvananthapuram district.

Objective and Benefits

• Marine Resource Replenishment: The primary aim is to replenish marine fishery resources in the region by enhancing biodiversity through the introduction of fingerlings.
• Sustainable Fishing: The project aims to promote sustainable fishing practices by supporting fish populations and ensuring long-term fishery health.
• Attraction of Fish Species: The artificial reefs have already attracted a variety of fish species, including tuna, trevally, and mackerel, enhancing the fishing ecosystem.

Implementation and Funding

• Scheme: The project is being implemented under the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), which focuses on sustainable fisheries development.
• Central Approval: The National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) approved the ?3 crore funding for the initial phase in Thiruvananthapuram.
• Proposed Expansions:
  • Phase II: A proposal for extending the artificial reef project to 96 villages in the districts of Kollam, Alappuzha, Ernakulam, and Thrissur with an estimated cost of ?29.76 crore.
  • Phase III: A similar proposal for 96 villages in the northern districts of Malappuram, Kozhikode, Kannur, and Kasaragod with an estimated cost of ?25.82 crore.

Mission and Fingerlings Details

• Fingerlings:
  • Pompano (Trachinotus blochii) and Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) fingerlings were reared at the Ayiramthengu fish farm.
  • Each fingerling weighs between 8 to 10 grams.
  • The release aims to stock marine areas with species that will contribute to biodiversity and fisheries sustainability.

Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY)

• Launched: PMMSY is a Centrally funded scheme under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying.
• Goal: The scheme focuses on sustainable fisheries development to enhance fisheries production, boost aquaculture, and promote responsible fishing practices.
• Funding: The scheme involves both Central and State Government funding for projects related to fisheries management, infrastructure development, and resource conservation.

Mission Fingerling

• Launched: 2017 by the Union Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare.
• Objective: To achieve the Blue Revolution by holistically developing and managing fisheries in India.
• Production Target: The mission aimed to increase fisheries production from 10.79 MMT (2014-15) to 15 MMT by 2020-21.

In News:

• In 2023, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) revealed that Indian farmers faced the highest implicit taxation globally, amounting to USD 120 billion.
• Implicit Taxation: This taxation arises from government policies like export bans, duties, and price controls, aimed at lowering food prices for consumers but reducing the income of farmers.
• Export Restrictions: Key commodities affected include rice, sugar, onions, and de-oiled rice bran.

Impact on Indian Farmers

• Market Price Support (MPS):
  • Negative MPS: In 2023, Indian agricultural policies resulted in a negative MPS of USD 110 billion.
  • Farmers received lower prices than international market rates due to export bans and trade restrictions, impacting their income.
• Budgetary Support: Despite government subsidies and the Minimum Support Price (MSP) worth USD 10 billion, negative MPS outweighed positive support, leading to an overall loss for farmers.
• Farmer’s Share in Global Negative Support:
  • India’s share of global negative price support in 2023 was 62.5%, a significant increase from 61% in 2000-02.

Global Agricultural Policy Trends

• Global Support: Total support for agriculture across 54 countries averaged USD 842 billion annually (2021-2023). However, there was a decline in support in 2022-23 from the pandemic-era peak.
• Challenges:
  • Geopolitical Tensions (e.g., Russia-Ukraine war) and climate change are exacerbating global agricultural production and trade.
  • Export Restrictions in various countries are distorting international agricultural markets.
  • Farmer Protests across countries reflect the economic and social struggles of the farming community.
• Sustainability Issues: Global agricultural productivity growth is slowing, posing challenges to feeding a growing population sustainably.

India's Agricultural Policies

• Export Bans and Restrictions: These policies are intended to control domestic prices but undermine farmers’ income by lowering market prices for key agricultural products.
• Minimum Support Price (MSP): MSP is meant to protect farmers, but is often set below international market rates, leading to a negative price effect.
• Regulatory Constraints: Policies like the Essential Commodities Act (1955) and APMC Act (2003), though aimed at ensuring food security, often lead to price suppression for farmers.
• Price Depressing Policies: India's agricultural policies result in lower farm-gate prices due to price controls, government-set procurement prices, and lack of market access.

Negative Market Price Support (MPS)

• Historical Trends:
  • From 2014-2016, India’s Producer Support Estimate (PSE) was -6.2%, driven mainly by negative MPS (-13.1%).
  • The PSE measures the annual value of transfers to farmers, both from consumers and the government.
• Inefficiencies:
  • Infrastructure Gaps: Poor infrastructure and high transaction costs lower the prices farmers receive.
  • Inefficient Resource Allocation: Short-term subsidies for inputs (fertilizers, irrigation) don’t address long-term agricultural challenges like climate change and market access.

Government Support Programs

• Subsidies and Schemes:
  • National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
  • Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) for organic farming.
  • Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) to promote agricultural development.
  • Digital Agriculture Mission and Unified Farmer Service Platform (UFSP) for modernizing agricultural practices.
• Sustainability Efforts:
  • The government has introduced initiatives like AgriStack and Mission Organic Value Chain Development in the North East to enhance sustainable agricultural practices and reduce the negative impacts on farmers.

Global Context and Recommendations

• Environmental Public Goods Payments (EPGP): Only 0.3% of total producer support is dedicated to environmental sustainability, despite the growing need for climate-resilient agriculture.
• Sustainable Agricultural Practices: The OECD advocates for governments to tie producer support to sustainable farming practices, including the use of metrics like Total Factor Productivity (TFP) and Agri-Environmental Indicators (AEIs).
  • TFP measures agricultural efficiency, while AEIs assess the environmental impacts of farming.

OECD Overview

• OECD Function: Founded in 1961, the OECD is an international organization of 38 countries that promotes prosperity, equality, and well-being through economic reports, data, and policy analysis.
• India’s Role: India has been an OECD Key Partner since 2007, engaging with the OECD on various policy issues, though it is not a member.

In News:

India with an abysmal score of 45.5 (out of 100) has been ranked 176th in the Global Nature Conservation Index, 2024.

Key Highlights:

• India's Ranking:
  • Ranked 176th out of 180 countries in the 2024 Global Nature Conservation Index (NCI).
  • India is listed among the five worst performers, along with Kiribati (180), Turkey (179), Iraq (178), and Micronesia (177).
  • Score: 45.5 out of 100, indicating significant conservation challenges.
• Key Factors Contributing to Low Rank:
  • Inefficient land management practices.
  • Rising threats to biodiversity, exacerbated by unsustainable development and climate change.
• Four Key Markers Assessed by the NCI:
  • Land Management: Ineffective management leading to significant land conversion.
  • Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat loss, fragmentation, and deforestation.
  • Capacity and Governance: Need for stronger political will and better enforcement of conservation laws.
  • Future Trends: Growing pressure from population density, climate change, and illegal wildlife trade.
• Sustainable Land Use Concerns:
  • 53% of land has been converted for urban, industrial, and agricultural purposes.
  • High use of pesticides and concerns over soil pollution.
  • Sustainable nitrogen index of 0.77 indicates significant risks to soil health.
• Marine Conservation Issues:
  • Only 0.2% of India’s national waterways are under protected areas, with no protected areas within its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
  • Significant improvements needed in marine conservation despite 7.5% of terrestrial areas being protected.
• Deforestation and Habitat Loss:
  • 23,300 sq. km of tree cover lost between 2001-2019 due to deforestation.
  • Habitat fragmentation from agriculture, urbanization, and infrastructure development.
  • Impact of climate change on sensitive ecosystems like alpine regions and coral reefs.
• Biodiversity Decline:
  • Despite 40% of marine species and 65% of terrestrial species being within Protected Areas (PAs), many species continue to face population decline.
  • 67.5% of marine species and 46.9% of terrestrial species are still experiencing population declines.
• Illegal Wildlife Trade:
  • India is the fourth-largest illegal wildlife trading nation globally, with an estimated annual trade value of £15 billion.
  • The NCI emphasizes the need for stronger enforcement and international cooperation to combat wildlife trafficking.
• Ecological Wealth Under Threat:
  • India’s high population density (with a population that has doubled since the late 1970s) continues to put pressure on its ecological wealth.
  • The country faces significant biodiversity challenges due to overpopulation and unsustainable development.
• Recommendations and Optimism:
  • The NCI stresses the need for strong political will and commitment to sustainable development.
  • India can improve its rank by strengthening conservation laws, improving governance, and securing funding for environmental initiatives.
  • The NCI remains optimistic about India’s potential to address its conservation challenges and achieve more sustainable outcomes in the future.
• About the Nature Conservation Index (NCI):
• Developed by: Goldman Sonnenfeldt School of Sustainability and Climate Change (Ben-Gurion University) and BioDB.com (a biodiversity database).
• Purpose: Evaluates the conservation efforts of countries, using a data-driven approach to balance conservation and development.
• Key Focus Areas: Land management, biodiversity threats, governance, and future sustainability trends.

In News:

• India's annual hidden costs from agrifood systems total $1.3 trillion, the third-largest globally, after China ($1.8 trillion) and the US ($1.4 trillion).
• These costs are mainly driven by unhealthy dietary patterns leading to non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as heart disease, diabetes, and stroke.

Major Contributors to Hidden Costs:

• Unhealthy Diets: Over 73% of India’s hidden costs stem from unhealthy dietary habits, including:
  • Excessive consumption of processed foods and additives ($128 billion).
  • Low intake of plant-based foods, fruits, and beneficial fatty acids ($846 billion).
• These dietary risks contribute to a significant health burden, increasing the prevalence of NCDs and reducing labor productivity.

Global Context:

• Global hidden costs of agrifood systems amount to $12 trillion annually.
• 70% of these costs (~$8.1 trillion) arise from unhealthy dietary patterns, which include high intakes of sugar, salt, and processed foods, contributing to diseases and economic losses.

Health Impacts:

• The report identifies 13 dietary risk factors that contribute to NCDs, including insufficient intake of whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and excessive sodium, with varying effects across different agrifood systems.

Environmental and Social Costs:

• Environmental Costs: High costs from unsustainable agricultural practices, including greenhouse gas emissions and nitrogen runoff. In some agrifood systems, environmental costs can reach up to 20% of GDP.
• Social Costs: High poverty rates among agrifood workers and undernourishment in systems like protracted crises and traditional agrifood systems contribute significantly to the hidden costs.

India’s Agrifood System Profile:

• India’s agrifood system faces significant challenges related to low wages, poor productivity, and poverty among agrifood workers, driven by distributional failures.
• Climate Change and Environmental Degradation: Issues like droughts, floods, and soil degradation threaten food security and agricultural sustainability in India.

Recommendations for Transformative Change:

• True Cost Accounting: Implementing this method can help better capture hidden costs and enable more informed decision-making for a sustainable agrifood system.
• Healthier Diets: Policies to make nutritious food more affordable and accessible to reduce health-related hidden costs.
• Sustainability Incentives: Encouraging practices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, harmful land-use changes, and biodiversity loss, using labelling, certification, and industry standards.
• Consumer Empowerment: Providing accessible information about the environmental, social, and health impacts of food choices, ensuring even vulnerable households benefit from healthier options.

India’s Path Forward:

• India has several ongoing initiatives for sustainable agriculture, including:
  • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
  • Eat Right Initiative.
  • Digital Agriculture Mission (DAM).
• However, challenges like climate change, soil degradation, and low productivity among smallholder farmers hinder progress toward sustainable food systems.

Key Focus Areas for India’s Agrifood Systems:

• Support for Smallholder Farmers: Enhancing access to technology, markets, and financial services for marginalized farmers.
• Sustainable Practices: Adoption of water-efficient practices, soil health restoration, and environmentally friendly farming methods.
• Collaboration with International Agencies: Cooperation with FAO, WFP, and others to strengthen agricultural reforms and support smallholder farmers.

In News:

The Adaptation Gap Report 2024, published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), underscores the urgent need for enhanced climate adaptation efforts, particularly through increased financial support for developing countries. The report, titled Come Hell and High Water, provides an annual assessment of global adaptation progress in planning, implementation, and financing.

Key Findings

• Adaptation Gap:
  • The adaptation finance gap is estimated at $187–359 billion per year.
  • Current adaptation finance falls short, with only $28 billion provided in 2022, meeting just 5% of projected needs.
• Adaptation Progress:
  • International public adaptation finance to developing countries rose to $27.5 billion in 2022, up from $19 billion in 2019, reflecting progress toward the Glasgow Climate Pact's goal of doubling finance by 2025.
• Significance of Adaptation:
  • Ambitious adaptation measures could reduce global climate risk by 50%.
  • For instance, $16 billion annually in agriculture could prevent climate-induced hunger for 78 million people.
• Impact of Global Warming:
  • According to UNEP's Emissions Gap Report 2024, global temperatures may increase by 2.6°C–3.1°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100.
  • Developing countries face severe vulnerabilities, evidenced by recent floods in Nepal, Nigeria, and Chad.
• National Adaptation Plans (NAPs):
  • While 171 countries have at least one adaptation policy, progress in implementation remains slow.
  • 10 countries have shown no interest in developing adaptation policies.

Challenges in Adaptation Financing

• Financial Burden: Adaptation projects such as seawalls and resilient infrastructure are costly for developing nations.
• Funding Shortfalls:
  • Developed nations have failed to meet financial commitments like the $100 billion goal set for 2020.
  • The adaptation finance gap remains significant in non-private sector-funded areas, such as ecosystem preservation.
• High-Interest Loans: Much current funding relies on high-interest loans, increasing the debt burden for recipient countries.

Recommendations

• Adopt New Financing Goals: Establish an ambitious New Collective Quantified Goal for climate finance at COP29.
• Strategic Adaptation Financing:
  • Shift from project-based to anticipatory and transformational financing.
  • Invest in harder-to-finance areas like ecosystem preservation and cultural heritage.
• Alternative Financing Models: Encourage risk finance, resilience bonds, debt-for-adaptation swaps, and payments for ecosystem services.

Global and Indian Initiatives

Global Initiatives:

• Paris Agreement: Sets a global adaptation goal to enhance resilience.
• UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience: Introduced at COP28, focusing on agriculture, water, and health adaptation targets.
• Adaptation Fund: Provides project funding for developing nations under the Kyoto Protocol.

Indian Initiatives:

• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): Includes eight missions, such as the National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC).
• Sectoral Schemes:
  • MISHTI: Mangrove initiative for shoreline protection.
  • Amrit Dharohar: Enhances wetland ecosystems.
• India's adaptation spending accounted for 5.6% of GDP in 2021–2022.

In News:

More than one in three tree species threatened with extinction, finds IUCN’s first Global Tree Assessment

Key Highlights:

Global Tree Extinction Risk:

• 38% of the world’s tree species are now facing the risk of extinction — over one in three tree species is at risk.
• This means 16,425 out of 47,282 tree speciesanalyzed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are under threat.
• Threatened tree species outnumber all threatened birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians combined, highlighting the urgent need for conservation action.

Key Drivers of Threat:

• Deforestation: The primary threat to trees is deforestation, driven by agriculture, livestock rearing, and urban development, especially in tropical regions.
• Climate Change: Rising sea levels and increasingly frequent storms exacerbate the threats, particularly in tropical regions and islands.
• Invasive Species & Pests: Non-native species, pests, and diseases are adding pressure to vulnerable tree populations.

Geographic Vulnerabilities:

• Islands are particularly vulnerable, with a high proportion of threatened species due to habitat destruction and urbanization.
• South America, which boasts the highest tree diversity, faces significant threats, with 3,356 out of 13,668 species at risk, mainly due to deforestation for agriculture.

Ecological and Economic Importance of Trees:

• Trees play a fundamental role in carbon, water, and nutrient cycles, and are critical for soil formation and climate regulation.
• The loss of trees poses a growing threat to thousands of other species of plants, fungi, and animals.
• Trees are essential for local communities, providing resources such as timber, medicines, food, and fuel. Over 5,000 species of trees are used for timber and construction, while more than 2,000 species are vital for food, fuel, and medicine.

Conservation Status:

• Tree species are threatened across 192 countries.
• The assessment is the first global analysis of the conservation status of trees, enabling better-informed conservation decisions.

Positive Actions and Strategies:

• Successful community-driven conservation efforts have had positive outcomes in places like the Juan Fernández Islands, Cuba, Madagascar, and Fiji.
• Some countries, including Ghana, Colombia, Chile, and Kenya, already have national strategies for tree conservation.
• Ex-situ conservation, such as seed banks and botanical gardens, is also crucial to safeguard species that may not survive in the wild.

Urgent Call for Action:

The IUCN Global Tree Assessment underlines the urgent need for enhanced conservation efforts, including:

• Habitat protection and restoration.
• Ex-situ conservation through seed banks and botanical gardens.
• Diversified and species-focused reforestation strategies.
• Supporting community-led conservation initiatives to safeguard vulnerable tree species.

In News:

Centre for Science and Environment release a report on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for Plastic Packaging

Key Findings:

• EPR Guidelines (2022) were a step towards enforcing the "polluter pays" principle, but the system faces significant issues in its implementation and registration processes.
• Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) report, released on October 29, 2024, highlights gaps in the EPR system for plastic packaging and suggests corrective actions.

EPR Guidelines Overview:

• Issued by: Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• Objective: Hold producers, importers, brand owners (PIBOs), and plastic waste processors (PWPs) responsible for managing plastic packaging waste.
• Key Requirements:
  • PIBOs must register on a centralized portal and set targets for collection, recycling, and reuse of plastic packaging.
  • Registration involves compliance with targets on end-of-life recycling and recycled content usage.

Problems Identified in the Current EPR System:

• Low Registration and Enrollment:
  • 41,577 registrations on the EPR portal, but a significant discrepancy in the type of stakeholders registered.
  • 83% of registered entities are importers, 11% are producers, and only 6% are brand owners.
  • Producers contribute 65% of the plastic packaging in the market but have low registration.
• Absence of Key Polluters:
  • Manufacturers of virgin plastics are notably absent from the portal, despite being required to register.
• Fraudulent Practices:
  • 700,000 fake certificates were generated by plastic recyclers, far exceeding the actual certificate generation capacity.
  • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) found that such fraudulent activities are undermining the integrity of the system.
  • For example, end-of-life co-processing units (e.g., cement plants) claimed to have processed 335.4 million tonnes per annum of plastic waste, while their actual capacity is just 11.4 million tonnes per annum.
• Underreporting and Mismanagement:
  • Despite 23.9 million tonnes of plastic packaging being introduced into the market, the CPCB’s estimation of plastic waste generation (4.1 MT annually) is underestimated.
• Lack of Stakeholder Representation:
  • Urban local bodies and informal waste collectors—key contributors to plastic waste management—are not included in the EPR framework, which limits their incentives and support.

Recommendations for Improvement:

• Incorporate the Informal Sector:
  • Recognize informal waste collectors and waste management agencies in the EPR framework to improve traceability and ensure better waste management.
• Eliminate Fraudulent Practices:
  • Strict actions need to be taken against fraudulent recyclers and fake certificate issuers to restore credibility to the EPR system.
• Establish Fair Pricing for EPR Certificates:
  • Undertake baseline cost studies to determine the true costs of plastic waste management, ensuring fair pricing for recycling certificates and preventing undervaluation.
• Standardize Packaging:
  • Focus on product standardization to ensure that packaging materials are uniform and easily recyclable.
• Strengthen Monitoring:
  • Improve oversight on the registration process and ensure that all polluters (producers, importers, brand owners) comply with the system’s guidelines.

EPR and Plastic Waste Management: Context and Importance

• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a policy approach where the responsibility of managing the entire lifecycle of plastic products (from production to disposal) lies with the producer.
• It is an essential part of India’s Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016), which mandate the recycling and proper disposal of plastic packaging waste.

Key Elements of EPR:

• Producer Accountability: Producers are responsible for the take-back, recycling, and final disposal of plastic packaging.
• Waste Minimization: Encourages reducing waste at the source by promoting sustainable packaging designs.
• Lifecycle Approach: Considers the entire lifecycle of the product, focusing on sustainability from production to disposal.
• Polluter Pays Principle: Ensures that the cost of waste management is borne by those responsible for generating the waste.

In News:

The updated NBSAP was released by India at the 16th Conference of Parties (COP16) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Overview of the NBSAP (2024-30):

• Title:Updated National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan: A Roadmap for Conservation of India’s Biodiversity.
• Objective: To provide a comprehensive roadmap for biodiversity conservation, aligning with global frameworks like the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).

Key Features of the Updated NBSAP:

• Alignment with Global Frameworks:
  • The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) adopted in 2022 aims to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030.
  • India’s updated NBSAP aligns with KMGBF’s goals, focusing on biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource use, and ensuring fair benefit-sharing.
• 23 National Biodiversity Targets:
  • The targets are focused on three key themes:
    • Reducing threats to biodiversity
    • Ensuring sustainable use of biodiversity
    • Enhancing tools for biodiversity implementation
• Key Domains of Focus:
  • Area-based conservation: Protecting ecosystems and habitats.
  • Ecosystem resilience: Enhancing the ability of ecosystems to withstand environmental stressors.
  • Recovery and conservation of threatened species.
  • Conservation of agrobiodiversity: Ensuring the sustainability of agricultural biodiversity.
  • Sustainable management of biodiversity.
  • Enabling tools and solutions: Including financial and technical support for implementation.
• Financial Plan and Expenditure:
  • Biodiversity Expenditure Review (BER) estimated an average annual expenditure of Rs 32,20,713 crore (FY 2017-2022) for biodiversity conservation.
  • Future funding requirements (FY 2024-2030) estimated at Rs 81,664.88 crore annually at the central government level.
  • Biodiversity Finance Plan suggests financing solutions, including public finance, corporate social responsibility (CSR), Ecological Fiscal Transfer (EFT), and Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanisms.
• Capacity Building:
  • The NBSAP stresses the need for capacity building across various levels—national, state, and local.
  • Focus on skills acquisition for biodiversity management and enhancing knowledge to implement conservation strategies.

Implementation Framework:

• Multi-Level Governance:
  • At the national level, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) will oversee implementation with involvement from 22 other ministries.
  • State-level: Involves State Biodiversity Boards and Union Territory Biodiversity Councils.
  • Local level: Community-driven efforts through Biodiversity Management Committees.
• BIOFIN and Resource Mobilization:
  • India is recognized as a leading country in the implementation of the Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN).
  • Encouragement for private entrepreneurs, businesses, and international donors to invest in biodiversity through innovative financial instruments like:
    • Green Bonds
    • Green Funds
    • Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)
• Incentives for Financial Solutions:
  • India aims to explore funding from corporate social responsibility (CSR), ecological fiscal transfers, and access and benefit sharing mechanisms to meet the financial needs for biodiversity conservation.

Challenges and Strategies:

• Challenges India Faces:
  • Habitat fragmentation
  • Pollution
  • Illegal wildlife trade
  • Adverse effects of climate change
• Strategic Responses:
  • The updated NBSAP provides strategies to address these challenges, ensuring comprehensive conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

In News:

India with an abysmal score of 45.5 (out of 100) has been ranked 176th in the Global Nature Conservation Index, 2024.

India's Ranking and Score:

• Rank: India ranks 176th out of 180 countries.
• Score: 45.5 out of 100.
• Context: India is listed among the five "worst performers," alongside Kiribati (180), Turkey (179), Iraq (178), and Micronesia (177).

Key Factors Affecting India’s Ranking:

• Inefficient Land Management: The main contributing factor to India's low ranking.
• Threats to Biodiversity: Rising threats due to habitat loss, deforestation, climate change, and pollution.
• Deforestation: Between 2001 and 2019, India lost 23,300 sq. km of tree cover, exacerbating biodiversity loss.

Focus Areas of the Nature Conservation Index (NCI):

• Land Management: Inefficient land use practices, with 53% of land converted for urban, industrial, and agricultural purposes.
• Biodiversity Threats: Habitat loss, fragmentation, and declining populations of marine and terrestrial species.
• Governance and Capacity: Challenges in enforcement of laws and governance structures that support conservation.
• Future Trends: India faces both opportunities and challenges, given its high population density and rapid development.

Key Findings:                                    

• Land Conversion and Urbanization: High rates of land conversion (53%) for development purposes, contributing to habitat loss.
• Soil Pollution: Issues with pesticide use and soil pollution (low nitrogen index of 0.77), affecting soil health.
• Marine Conservation: Only 0.2% of national waterways and none within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) are protected.
• Deforestation Impact: Loss of 23,300 sq. km of forest between 2001-2019.
• Biodiversity Decline: Despite 40% of marine species and 65% of terrestrial species in protected areas, biodiversity continues to decline—67.5% of marine species and 46.9% of terrestrial species face population decreases.

Marine and Terrestrial Conservation:

• Marine Areas: Need for greater investment in marine conservation, as India's marine protected areas (MPAs) are limited.
• Protected Areas: While 7.5% of India’s terrestrial area is protected, significant threats like climate change and habitat fragmentation persist.

Biodiversity and Climate Change:

• Climate Change Risks: Impacts on vulnerable ecosystems, including coral reefs and alpine regions, further threaten biodiversity.
• Population Growth: India’s rapidly growing population (one of the highest in the world) places constant pressure on natural resources and ecosystems.

Illegal Wildlife Trade:

• Global Ranking: India is the fourth-largest illegal wildlife trader globally, with an annual trade worth approximately £15 billion.
• Call for Action: Stronger enforcement of wildlife protection laws and international cooperation are crucial to combat illegal wildlife trade.

SDGs and India’s Conservation Challenges:

• SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and SDG 15 (Life on Land): India faces significant challenges in meeting these Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in protecting marine life and terrestrial ecosystems.

Recommendations for Improvement:

• Stronger Political Will: Political commitment is essential for passing laws that promote sustainable development and biodiversity conservation.
• Enforcement and Funding: Increased funding for environmental initiatives and better enforcement of conservation policies are necessary to address the conservation challenges.
• Sustainable Development: Integrating sustainable land use practices and improving governance structures for conservation are key areas for focus.