In News:

A US biotech company, Colossal Biosciences, claims to have genetically engineered three grey wolf pups to carry traits of the extinct dire wolf, calling it a de-extinction.

What is De-Extinction?

De-extinction is the process of reviving extinct species using advanced biotechnological methods such as:

• Gene editing (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9),
• Cloning (e.g., somatic cell nuclear transfer),
• Ancient DNA sequencing and genome reconstruction,
• Synthetic biology to reintroduce key traits of extinct organisms.

Colossal Biosciences and the Dire Wolf Project

In late 2024, a U.S.-based biotechnology firm, Colossal Biosciences, announced the birth of three genetically engineered wolf pups—Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi—claimed to be the world’s first successful case of "functional de-extinction."

About the Dire Wolf

• Scientific name: Aenocyon dirus
• Habitat: Grasslands and forests of North America during the Pleistocene Epoch
• Extinction: ~12,500–13,000 years ago
• Characteristics: 25% larger than modern grey wolves; strong jaws to hunt megafauna like bison and horses; light-colored dense fur; social, pack-hunting predators.

Scientific Process Involved

• DNA Extraction: Ancient DNA was recovered from dire wolf fossils (13,000 to 72,000 years old).
• Genome Reconstruction: Sequencing and comparative analysis showed ~99.5% similarity between dire wolves and modern grey wolves.
• Gene Editing: Scientists edited 20 genes in grey wolves to replicate dire wolf traits like:
  • White, thick fur
  • Increased body mass
  • Enhanced musculature and coat pattern
• Cloning: Modified DNA was used to create embryos via somatic cell nuclear transfer.
• Surrogacy: Embryos were implanted in large domestic dogs. Of several attempts, three pups survived.

Scientific and Ethical Concerns

• Experts argue these are not true dire wolves but genetically edited grey wolves with some dire wolf-like traits.
• Critics highlight the absence of peer-reviewed publication, limited understanding of epigenetic and behavioral factors, and the artificial environment in which the pups are raised.
• Colossal terms the process "functional de-extinction", meaning re-creating genetically and ecologically similar organisms, not exact replicas.

Ecological and Conservation Relevance

• Colossal claims the technology could help endangered species like the red wolf (native to the southeastern U.S.), threatened by habitat loss and hybridization with coyotes.
• Four clones of red wolf–coyote hybrids have been produced with potential use in restoring genetic diversity.
• The company aims to democratize conservation biotechnology, pledging to share tools with global conservationists and working with Native American communities.

Contemporary Debates

• Over 60 environmental groups have protested proposed U.S. legislation to delist grey wolves from the Endangered Species Act, warning of ecological consequences.
• Scientists urge caution, stressing that true resurrection of extinct species requires more than gene editing, as behavior, evolutionary context, and environmental adaptation cannot be synthetically replicated.

In News:

Menstrual Hygiene Day, observed annually on May 28, raises awareness about safe menstrual practices and their role in ensuring health, dignity, and equality for women and girls. Ahead of the day, the everteen Menstrual Hygiene Survey 2025 has highlighted growing concerns around misinformation, stigma, and access to menstrual products in India.

Key Findings from the Survey:

• Social Media & Misinformation:
  • 71.6% of women find social media informative on menstruation.
  • However, only 11.5% trust it during emergencies.
  • 1 in 4 women reported that misinformation online negatively affected their menstrual health.
• Examples of Misinformation:
  • Harmful remedies such as applying menstrual blood for skincare, or drinking coffee/lemonade for cramps.
  • Myths like avoiding exercise, temple visits, or not washing hair during periods.
  • Misleading claims linking light flow to infertility or tampon use to anatomical changes.
• Menstrual Pain & Remedies:
  • 82.7% of respondents experience menstrual pain.
  • Only 14.2% use painkillers; 41.5% use no remedy at all.
  • Cramps roll-ons used by just 5.5%.
• Menstrual Products Usage:
  • 87.8% use sanitary pads (most common).
  • Disposable period panties (5.7%) are more popular than menstrual cups (4.7%) or tampons (1.6%).
  • 35.4% purchase menstrual products online citing convenience and discounts.
  • A significant number of offline buyers report discomfort at physical stores.
• Online Discourse:
  • 34% of women shared personal menstrual experiences online.
  • Yet, 37.6% feared privacy breaches and 11.4% feared social judgment.

Menstrual Hygiene: Broader Context

• Definition: Safe and hygienic management of menstruation, including the use of clean products, proper disposal, access to sanitation, and health education.
• Global Concern: According to UNICEF, 500 million women globally lack access to adequate menstrual hygiene facilities.

Challenges in India:

• Digital Myths & Stigma: Despite digital access, online spaces are rife with misinformation and taboo-laden content.
• Access Inequality: Significant urban-rural divide in menstrual health services, infrastructure, and product availability.
• Awareness Gaps: Cultural silence and lack of comprehensive health education still persist.

Policy Interventions & Governance:

• Relevant Government Initiatives:
  • SUVIDHA Scheme: Affordable biodegradable sanitary napkins at Jan Aushadhi Kendras.
  • Swachh Bharat Mission: Incorporates Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) into sanitation programs.
• Global Frameworks: Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 – Right to clean water and sanitation, encompassing menstrual hygiene.

In News:

A new drug, Gantenerumab, has shown potential in slowing the progression of early-onset Alzheimer’s by significantly reducing the accumulation of amyloid plaques, a major indicator of the disease.

Alzheimer’s Disease Overview

• Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, primarily impairing memory, thinking, and reasoning.
• It is the most common cause of dementia, accounting for 60–80% of all dementia cases globally.
• The disease is marked by the accumulation of amyloid beta plaques, which interfere with neuronal communication and trigger brain inflammation, eventually leading to cell death.

What is Early-Onset Alzheimer’s Disease (EOAD)?

• EOAD affects individuals below 65 years of age, comprising 5–10% of total Alzheimer’s cases.
• It progresses more rapidly and often strikes during a person’s prime working years.
• EOAD is strongly linked to genetic mutations in three genes: APP, PSEN1, and PSEN2, which result in overproduction of amyloid beta proteins.

Amyloid Plaques: The Disease Hallmark

• Amyloid plaques are clusters of misfolded amyloid beta proteins.
• These plaques disrupt brain function, contribute to inflammation, and kill neurons.
• They are central to the amyloid hypothesis, which posits that amyloid accumulation is a primary cause of Alzheimer’s progression.

Gantenerumab: A Potential Breakthrough

• Gantenerumab is a monoclonal antibody developed to target and eliminate amyloid beta plaques in the brain.
• It can cross the blood-brain barrier, a key obstacle in neurological drug delivery.
• The drug binds to amyloid plaques, signaling microglial cells (brain's immune cells) to break down and clear these plaques.
• This action may slow cognitive decline in early stages of the disease.

Recent Clinical Trial Findings

• A randomized, placebo-controlled trial involved 73 participants with rare inherited EOAD mutations.
• A subgroup of 22 asymptomatic participants showed reduced risk of symptom development from nearly 100% to 50% over eight years.
• Brain imaging confirmed a significant reduction in amyloid buildup.

Limitations and Risks

• Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) were observed in 53% of trial participants:
  • Brain swelling in 30%
  • Microbleeds in 27%
  • Iron deposits in 6%
• No major hemorrhages or deaths occurred, but side effects necessitate regular monitoring.
• The cognitive benefits were modest, and the drug is costly to produce, raising affordability concerns.
• The study had a small sample size and focused only on a rare genetic subset of EOAD.

Significance and Future Prospects

• Gantenerumab supports the amyloid hypothesis, alongside other drugs like lecanemab and donanemab.
• Despite its discontinuation in 2022 due to limited efficacy, new findings may revive interest in its development.
• The trial highlights the critical importance of early diagnosis and biomarker testing for timely therapeutic intervention.

In News:

The Maasai, a prominent indigenous community in East Africa, are resisting international carbon credit projects in Tanzania. They fear these initiatives may lead to land dispossession and the erosion of their traditional pastoralist lifestyle.

Who are the Maasai?

• Ethnic Group: Semi-nomadic pastoralists found primarily in Tanzania and Kenya, especially in the Great Rift Valley and semi-arid savannas.
• Language:Maa (Eastern Sudanic branch, Nilo-Saharan family).
• Cultural Identity:
  • Known for distinct attire, beadwork, and warrior traditions.
  • Socially organized through patrilineal clans, divided into moieties and age-sets (from junior warriors to senior elders).
  • Youth (Morans) undergo bush training for resilience and discipline.
• Livelihood:
  • Rely on cattle, sheep, and goats for milk, meat, and blood.
  • Practice transhumance, moving seasonally for water and pasture.
  • Reside in kraals—circular enclosures with mud-dung houses and thorn fences.

Carbon Credit Projects and Rising Tensions

• Projects Involved:
  • Longido and Monduli Rangelands Carbon Project (Volkswagen ClimatePartners).
  • Resilient Tarangire Ecosystem Project (The Nature Conservancy).
• Area Affected: Nearly 2 million hectares of Maasai grazing land.
• Project Goal: Store soil carbon and sell offsets to polluters globally.

Maasai Concerns and Resistance

• Forced Land-Use Changes:Carbon projects impose structured rotational grazing (e.g., 14-day grazing cycles), disrupting centuries-old mobility practices.
• Lack of Consultation:Research by the Maasai International Solidarity Alliance (MISA) shows widespread violations of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC).
  • Women and youth were excluded from consultations.
  • Some communities unknowingly entered 30–40 year contracts.
  • Payments were often tokenistic and poorly explained.
• Economic and Legal Risks:
  • Villages lack clarity on revenue shares from credits.
  • Contracts lock communities into rigid systems despite village land-use plans being reviewed every 10 years.
  • Intermediaries—not end buyers—dominate the agreements.

Government and Global Dimensions

• Tanzania’s Push:The government expects $1 billion/year from carbon credit sales and is streamlining the sector through the National Carbon Monitoring Centre (NCMC).
• Global Scrutiny:
  • Investigations reveal over 90% of rainforest offsets by some certifiers are ineffective.
  • Soil carbon in semi-arid areas (like Maasai rangelands) is volatile and hard to quantify.

Grassroots Resistance and Legal Action

• Cultural and Spiritual Attachment:Land is integral to Maasai identity, beyond livestock rearing—it holds spiritual and cultural significance.
• Legal Mobilization:Young warriors, once defending livestock from predators, now advocate legally to protect ancestral land.MISA, formed after violent evictions in 2022 (Ngorongoro, Loliondo), spearheads resistance against exploitative schemes.

In News:

Infectious animal diseases are spreading to previously unaffected regions and species, with nearly half (47 per cent) capable of zoonotic transmission or spreading between animals, according to the inaugural State of the World’s Animal Health report released by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH).

Key Details:

Published by:

• World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), formerly OIE (Office International des Epizooties), founded in 1924, headquartered in Paris.
• Recognized by the WTO for setting global standards on animal health and zoonotic disease control.

Objective of the Report:

• To provide a comprehensive global assessment of animal health trends, risks, and disease outbreaks.
• To promote a One Health approach, linking animal health with human health and environmental sustainability.

Major Findings:

1. Rising Zoonotic Threats:

• 47% of animal diseases reported between 2005–2023 have zoonotic potential (can spread from animals to humans).
• These include avian influenza, African swine fever (ASF), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), and Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR).

2. Geographic Expansion of Diseases:

• Diseases are emerging in new regions and species due to climate change, global trade, and ecosystem disruptions.
• Example: ASF jumped over 1,800 km to reach Sri Lanka in 2024, marking the year's most significant disease leap.
• PPR re-emerged in Europe, traditionally limited to developing regions.

3. Avian Influenza Evolution:

• Over 630 million birds culled or lost in 20 years.
• In 2024, more outbreaks were reported in non-poultry species (55 countries) than poultry (42 countries).
• Mammal infections doubled, raising concerns of cross-species transmission.

4. Other Notable Disease Events:

• Germany faced its first FMD outbreak since 1988.
• New World Screwworm, a parasitic fly, re-emerged in Mexico and Nicaragua.
• Bluetongue virus reported in 23 countries with over 3,500 cases in 2024.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): A Global Threat

Key Data:

• By 2050, AMR may cause:
  • Loss of livestock threatening food security for 2 billion people.
  • $100 trillion global economic loss.

Drivers:

• Indiscriminate use of antibiotics in livestock, aquaculture, and agriculture.
• Around 20% of countries still use antimicrobials as growth promoters, including high-priority drugs like colistin and enrofloxacin.

Trends:

• Global antibiotic use in animals fell by 5% (2020–2022).
  • Europe: 23% decline.
  • Africa: 20% decline.

Recommendations by WOAH:

• Enhance vaccine access and distribution, especially in low-income countries.
• Strengthen Veterinary Services, surveillance, and biosecurity.
• Improve hygiene and disease prevention to reduce antibiotic dependence.
• Promote international cooperation under the One Health framework.
• Ban or regulate the use of antibiotics as growth promoters.

About WOAH:

• Intergovernmental organization with 183 member countries, including India.
• Monitors, controls, and reports on animal diseases to ensure safe trade, public health, and food security.
• Partner in Global Action Plan on AMR with WHO and FAO.

Indian Initiatives on AMR & Animal Health:

• National Action Plan on AMR (2017–2021) – Focus on awareness, surveillance, infection control, and R&D.
• FSSAI guidelines to regulate antibiotic residues in food of animal origin.
• National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP) – Focus on vaccination against FMD and Brucellosis.

Latest Winner

• Recipient: Mariangela Hungria, a microbiologist from Brazil.
• Achievement: Recognized for her groundbreaking research in biological seed and soil treatments that improve crop nutrition and yields.
• Her innovations reduce the dependency on chemical fertilizers by helping crops derive nutrients through soil microbes, enhancing sustainable agricultural practices.

About the World Food Prize

• Nature of the Award: A prestigious international honour for outstanding contributions to the global food system.
• Often referred to as the “Nobel Prize for Food and Agriculture.”

Objectives

• Recognizes exceptional efforts in improving the quality, quantity, and accessibility of food worldwide.
• Contributions can come from fields such as:
  • Agricultural science & technology
  • Food production and nutrition
  • Economics, policy, marketing
  • Poverty reduction & social science
  • Leadership in food security initiatives

Establishment

• Founded in: 1986 by Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, Nobel Peace Prize laureate (1970) and father of the Green Revolution.
• Administered by: The World Food Prize Foundation, with support from public and private sector partners.

Award Details

• Prize Amount: $500,000
• Award Ceremony: Held annually in Des Moines, Iowa, USA, during the Borlaug Dialogue and around World Food Day (October 16).

Historical Note

• India’s Contribution: Renowned agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan was the first recipient of the World Food Prize in 1987.
• Honoured for introducing high-yielding wheat and rice varieties in India during the 1960s, contributing to food self-sufficiency.

In News:

Recently, the Himachal Pradesh Government notified the Tsarap Chu Conservation Reserve, making it India’s largest conservation reserve, spanning 1,585 sq km. It is located in the Spiti Valley of Lahaul-Spiti district, a high-altitude, cold desert ecosystem.

Legal Status:

• Declared under Section 36A(1) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
• It is Himachal Pradesh’s fifth conservation reserve after Darlaghat, Naina Devi, Potter Hill, and Shilli

Geographical Significance:

• Boundaries:
  • North: Union Territory of Ladakh
  • East: Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (up to Malang Nala and LungarLungpa)
  • South: KabjimaNala
  • West: Chandratal Wildlife Sanctuary
• Encompasses the confluence of Unam River and CharapNala
• Serves as the catchment area of Charap Nallah and a critical wildlife corridor linking Kibber and Chandratal sanctuaries

Ecological Importance:

• Identified as a high-density snow leopard habitat
• Other key species:
  • Tibetan wolf, bharal (blue sheep), Himalayan ibex
  • Kiang (Tibetan wild ass), Tibetan argali
• Rich in avian biodiversity: Rose Finch, Tibetan Raven, Yellow-billed Chough

Management and Community Involvement:

• To be managed by a Conservation Reserve Management Committee including local Panchayat representatives
• Emphasizes community-based conservation, balancing ecological goals with local livelihoods
• Promotes eco-tourism, wildlife research, and nature-based livelihood opportunities

In News:

The World Health Organization’s upcoming “State of the World’s Nursing 2025” report raises an urgent alarm over the deepening global nursing shortage. It projects that by 2030, 70% of the global shortfall will be concentrated in Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean regions, underscoring the need for immediate and strategic workforce interventions.

Nursing in India: Current Status and Challenges

India is grappling with a critical shortage of nursing professionals, falling short of global standards in several key areas:

• Nurse-to-Population Ratio:India currently has approximately 30 nurses per 10,000 people, which is below the WHO-recommended threshold of 44.5 health workers per 10,000.
• Nursing Education:While the country has significantly increased the number of nursing graduates, quality concerns, infrastructure limitations, and faculty shortages persist across institutions.
• Migration Trends:India remains one of the leading exporters of trained nurses, especially to countries like the UK, Gulf nations, and Australia, contributing to a domestic workforce drain.
• Workforce Retention:Persistent issues such as low wages, limited opportunities for career advancement, and unsafe or stressful working environments contribute to high attrition rates.

Key Issues in India's Nursing Sector

• Inadequate Workforce Availability:India does not meet the WHO’s benchmark for health worker density, with rural areas facing the most severe shortages.
• Urban-Rural Imbalance:A large concentration of nurses in urban private hospitals severely restricts healthcare access in Primary and Community Health Centres (PHCs and CHCs) in rural regions.
• Poor Working Conditions:Nurses frequently endure long working hours, delayed salaries, insufficient mental health support, and unsafe work environments, which discourage long-term retention.
• Lack of Leadership Representation:The absence of Chief Nursing Officers (CNOs) at both state and national levels weakens the profession’s influence in health policy and governance.
• Limited Public Investment:Constraints in fiscal capacity and inadequate infrastructure hinder both the training and employment of nursing professionals.
• International Migration Without Compensation:The high rate of nurse outmigration is not matched by equitable bilateral agreements, leaving India's healthcare system vulnerable and under-resourced.

Strategic Recommendations:

• Expand Training Infrastructure:Increase the number of nursing colleges with a focus on faculty recruitment and clinical infrastructure, in line with the National Education Policy’s emphasis on vocational education.
• Strengthen Leadership and Governance:Establish Chief Nursing Officers at state and national levels, and bolster the role of nursing councils to advocate for reforms and oversee standards.
• Enhance Retention Strategies:Improve remuneration, ensure workplace safety, offer mental health support, and create clear career progression pathways to retain talent.
• Promote Rural Deployment:Introduce bonded scholarships, financial incentives, and housing support to encourage nursing professionals to serve in underserved rural regions.
• Leverage Technology and AI:Incorporate blended learning models, train nurses in electronic health record systems, and integrate AI-driven modules into nursing curricula for future-ready skills.
• Foster Fair International Cooperation:Develop bilateral agreements (e.g., India–UK healthcare MoUs) that ensure reciprocal benefits and support domestic capacity-building when nurses migrate abroad.

In News:

• Recently, the Union Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare launched India’s first genome-edited rice varieties—DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala) and Pusa DST Rice 1.
• Developed by ICAR-IIRR (Hyderabad) and ICAR-IARI (New Delhi) using CRISPR-Cas9 technology under SDN1/SDN2 methods.

About the Varieties

DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala)

• Developed by: ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR), Hyderabad
• Parent variety: Samba Mahsuri (BPT 5204)
• Features:
  • 19% increase in yield
  • Matures in ~130 days (20 days earlier than parent)
  • Stronger stem – reduces lodging
  • Saves ~7,500 million cubic meters of irrigation water
  • Lower methane emissions
  • Edited gene: CKX2 (Gn1a) – increases grain number per panicle

Pusa DST Rice 1

• Developed by: ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi
• Parent variety: MTU 1010 (Cotton Dora Sannalu)
• Features:
  • Improved tolerance to drought and salinity
  • Yield increase: Up to 30.4% in saline/alkaline soils
  • Edited gene: DST gene
  • Developed using SDN1 genome editing – no foreign DNA inserted

Technology Used

• CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing system:
  • Enables precise editing of native genes without inserting foreign DNA
  • SDN1/SDN2 methods approved by India’s biosafety regulations
• Genome editing vs GMOs:
  • Genome editing makes internal gene alterations
  • GMOs involve insertion of foreign genetic material
  • GM crops are banned for cultivation/import in India (except Bt cotton)

Benefits Claimed

• Increased agricultural productivity:
  • 19% increase in yield (DRR Dhan 100)
  • Up to 30.4% increase in saline soils (Pusa DST Rice 1)
• Environmental benefits:
  • Reduced greenhouse gas emissions (~20%)
  • Lower methane release due to early maturation
  • Major water conservation
• Target states: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Puducherry

Concerns and Criticisms

Biosafety and Unintended Effects

• Unintended mutations: CRISPR-Cas enzymes may cause off-target gene edits, potentially resulting in unknown protein formations.
• Lack of global standardisation on enzyme concentration and specificity.
• Some scientists warn of genetic instability in SDN1-based edits.

Seed Sovereignty & Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

• Genome editing tools are IPR-protected, raising concerns over farmers' seed sovereignty.
• Activist groups like Coalition for a GM-Free India demand transparency on IPR ownership and oppose reliance on proprietary technologies.
• Risk of monoculture, loss of rice genetic diversity, and trade barriers for India’s non-GM rice exports.

Policy and Regulatory Framework

• India’s biosafety guidelines (2022) permit SDN1 and SDN2 genome editing for general crops.
• The Union Budget 2023–24 allocated ?500 crore for advancing genome editing in agriculture.
• ICAR expanding genome editing to oilseeds and pulses.

In News:

The Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), in its Global Wind Report 2025, has warned that current global wind energy growth is insufficient to meet the targets aligned with the Paris Agreement and net-zero emissions by 2050. As per the report, at current trends, only 77% of the wind capacity required by 2030 will be achieved — putting the 1.5°C global warming limit at serious risk.

Global Wind Energy Landscape (as of 2024)

• New Capacity Added: 117 GW (up from 116.6 GW in 2023)
• Total Global Capacity: 1,136 GW
• Leading Countries:
  • China: 70% of new installations
  • USA, Brazil, India, and Germany followed.
• Emerging Markets: Uzbekistan, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia showed significant growth.
• Regional Progress:
  • Africa and Middle East: Onshore wind capacity doubled compared to previous years.
  • Offshore Wind: Only 8 GW added (down 26% from 2023), the lowest since 2021.

Key Challenges Identified by GWEC

• Policy Uncertainty: Regulatory delays and instability in key markets.
• Grid Infrastructure Deficits: Underinvestment in transmission and distribution systems.
• Financial Constraints: Inflation, high interest rates, trade protectionism.
• Market Inefficiencies: Weak renewable energy auction systems.

Global Commitments & Urgency

• At COP28 (Dubai), countries pledged to triple renewable energy capacity by 2030.
• To align with this goal, annual wind installations must rise to 320 GW by 2030.
• Failure to scale up urgently risks missing a vital climate mitigation window.

Wind Energy in India – Status and Prospects (as of March 2025)

• Total Installed Capacity: 50.04 GW
• Capacity Added (FY 2024–25): 4.15 GW
  • (Up from 3.25 GW in FY 2023–24)
• Global Rank: 4th largest wind power producer (after China, USA, Germany)
• Top States:
  • Gujarat
  • Tamil Nadu
  • Karnataka
• Manufacturing Strength: Domestic wind turbine manufacturing capacity is ~18,000 MW/year.
• Offshore Wind Potential:
  • Gujarat: 36 GW
  • Tamil Nadu: 35 GW

In News:

At the ongoing 2025 Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Basel, Rotterdam, and Stockholm (BRS) Conventions in Geneva, there has been a renewed global call to list chlorpyrifos under Annex A of the Stockholm Convention, which would mandate a complete global ban without exemptions.

About Chlorpyrifos

• Type: Organophosphate insecticide.
• Usage: Widely used in agriculture and public health to control pests like mosquitoes, termites, and roundworms.
• Mechanism: Inhibits the acetylcholinesterase enzyme, disrupting nerve functions in pests and non-target species including humans.
• Introduced in India: Registered under the Insecticides Act, 1968 since 1977.
• Consumption in India: Accounted for 9.4% of total insecticide use in 2016–17 (IPEN Report).

Health and Environmental Concerns

• Human Impact: Exposure via skin, inhalation, or ingestion can cause headache, nausea, dizziness, muscle cramps, and in severe cases, paralysis and respiratory distress. Forms a toxic byproduct (chlorpyrifos oxon) in the body.
• Environmental Impact:
  • Persistence: Remains in soil for weeks to years; degrades slowly in acidic conditions.
  • Water Contamination: Reaches water bodies through erosion.
  • Toxicity: Highly toxic to birds, fish, bees, and earthworms.
  • Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification: Accumulates in organisms and magnifies through the food chain.
• Detection in India: Residues found in agricultural produce, water, human blood, and breast milk.
  • A 2003 Indian study recorded levels 41 times higher than WHO safety limits.

Stockholm Convention on POPs (2001; in force since 2004)

• Objective: Eliminate or restrict Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).
• Annex A: Complete elimination of listed chemicals (e.g., aldrin, chlordane).
• Annex B: Restricted use.
• Annex C: Minimize unintentional emissions.
• Financial Mechanism: Supported by Global Environment Facility (GEF).
• India’s Status: Ratified in 2006.
  • Enacted "Regulation of POPs Rules, 2018" under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): Overview

• Definition: Toxic, long-lasting, bioaccumulative chemicals resistant to degradation.
• Health Effects: Cause cancer, endocrine disruption, immune suppression, neurotoxicity, and reproductive harm.
• Examples: DDT, Endosulfan, Aldrin, Dieldrin, PCBs.

Debate at Geneva Meeting (2025)

• Proposal: Listing chlorpyrifos in Annex A without exemptions.
• Supporting Arguments:
  • Recommended by the POPs Review Committee (POPRC).
  • Detected even in remote areas like the Arctic.
  • Long-term harm to child brain development (as per PAN International).
  • Disproportionate impact on vulnerable and developing nations.
  • Safe alternatives (e.g., agroecological and organic practices) are available.
• India’s Opposition: Cited lack of viable alternatives and threat to food security.

In News:

On World Day for Glaciers (March 21, 2025), the United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 revealed that glaciers globally are retreating at an alarming rate, with the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region witnessing the most severe impact — glacier loss accelerated by 65% between 2011–2020 compared to the previous decade.

Key Facts about Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region

• Geographical Spread: Extends over 3,500 km across 8 countries — Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan.
• Population Impact:
  • 240 million people live in the HKH region.
  • An additional 1.65 billion people downstream depend on its waters for drinking, agriculture, hydropower, and sanitation.
• Glacial Reservoir: Known as the “Third Pole” or “Water Tower of Asia”, the HKH stores more ice than anywhere outside the Arctic and Antarctic.
• River Systems: Source of 10 major river basins, including the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, and Mekong.

Projected Glacier Loss (HKH and Global)

Temperature Rise (°C)                    HKH Glacier Volume Loss by 2100

1.5°C to 2°C                                      30%–50%

Above 2°C                                      ~45% (from 2020 baseline)

• Global Glacier Loss: Mountain glaciers may lose 26%–41% of total mass globally by 2100, affecting 1.1 billion people in mountain regions.

Disaster Risks from Glacier Melt

• Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs):
  • Trigger flash floods and landslides.
  • Have caused over 12,000 deaths globally in the past 200 years.
  • In the HKH region alone, GLOFs are linked to over 7,000 deaths in the last 190 years.
  • Risk of GLOFs may triple by 2100.
• Glacial Lakes: Rapid warming is expanding the number and area of glacier-fed lakes, increasing hazard potential.

Cryosphere and Climate Change

• Hydrological Changes: Melting glaciers alter water runoff patterns, with varied impacts across river basins — increasing monsoon runoff in some while reducing dry-season flows in others.
• Hydropower Challenges:
  • Glacial melt initially boosts hydropower potential but may be offset by increased evaporation and reduced glacier mass over time.
  • Many hydropower and cryptocurrency mining projects are unregulated and stress fragile mountain ecosystems.
• Mountain-Based Industries: Lithium mining in the Andes, for instance, uses up to 2,000 m³ of water per tonne, intensifying water stress.

Governance and Cooperation Gaps

• Weak Water Governance: Mountain regions, including the HKH, lack effective transboundary cooperation due to mutual distrust and poor data sharing.
• Transboundary Action Plan (HKH):
  1. Enhance cooperation at all levels.
  2. Prioritize rights and knowledge of mountain people.
  3. Limit global warming to 1.5°C.
  4. Fast-track SDG implementation in mountain areas.
  5. Strengthen ecosystem resilience and biodiversity.
  6. Promote regional data sharing and scientific collaboration.

UN Actions and Global Recognition

• International Year of Glacier Preservation (IYGP): 2025
• Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science: 2025–2034 — to advance global efforts in glacier conservation, data collection, and sustainable development in cryosphere-dependent regions.

In News:

The diversity of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture was under growing threat as despite 6,000 plant species cultivated, 60 per cent of the global crop production was alarmingly dependent on just nine crops, an important report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Key Highlights:

• Released by:Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), under the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA-20).
• Crop Dependency & Diversity:
  • 60% of global crop production is dependent on just 9 crops:Sugarcane, Maize, Rice, Wheat, Potatoes, Soybeans, Oil Palm Fruit, Sugar Beet, Cassava.
  • Though 6,000 plant species are cultivated globally, there is a rising loss of genetic diversity, increasing vulnerability to climate shocks and food insecurity.
• Farmers’ Varieties / Landraces (FV/LRs):
  • Traditional crop varieties adapted to local conditions, offering greater resilience to climate, pests, and diseases.
  • Globally, 6% of FV/LRs are threatened; this figure exceeds 18% in some regions like Southern Africa, the Caribbean, and Western Asia.
  • In India, over 50% of FV/LRs across five agro-ecological zones are at risk of extinction.
• Conservation Efforts
  • In-situ (on-farm): Around 35 million hectares in 51 countries are under cultivation with FV/LRs.
    • 42% of plant taxa are threatened at species or varietal level.
  • Ex-situ (off-farm):
    • Over 5.9 million accessions preserved globally.
    • Many stored in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.
    • Conservation is constrained by funding, political support, infrastructure, and skilled personnel shortages.

India-Specific Initiative

• Seed Hub Initiative (2016) by the Ministry of Agriculture:
  • Aimed at promoting high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of pulses.
  • Resulted in increased production from 14.76 million tonnes (2007–08) to 24.42 million tonnes (2020–21).

Impact of Climate Change

• Increasing frequency of extreme weather events threatens crop diversity.
• Countries lack mechanisms to assess disaster impacts on crop genetics.
• Post-disaster germplasm distribution often suffers due to poor seed adaptation to local agro-climatic and cultural contexts.

Key Challenges

• Genetic erosion due to monoculture, urbanization, and climate stress.
• Underfunded gene banks and weak institutional capacity.
• Lack of trained plant genetic experts and documentation gaps.
• Limited access to locally adapted seeds, especially post-disaster.

Way Forward

• Integrate in-situ and ex-situ conservation with community participation.
• Enhance funding and explore public-private partnerships.
• Build capacity in taxonomy, plant breeding, and genebank management.
• Promote participatory breeding with farmers and Indigenous communities.
• Strengthen policy support for crop diversification and climate-resilient agriculture.

About CGRFA

• Established: 1983 by FAO.
• Mandate: Only intergovernmental body focusing on sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity.
• Membership: 179 countries + European Union.
• Major Achievement:Instrumental in adoption of International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), 2001.

In News:

A major global study published in PLOS Biology (March 2025) has reaffirmed that targeted species-specific conservation measures are critical in reversing biodiversity loss and preventing extinctions. Despite the ongoing biodiversity crisis, where six times more species are declining than improving, the study found that where conservation efforts were applied, results were overwhelmingly positive.

Analyzing over 67,000 animal species from the IUCN Red List, researchers from institutions including the University of Cambridge, IUCN, and BirdLife International discovered that 99.3% of species that improved in threat status since 1980 had benefitted from conservation interventions, such as habitat protection, reintroduction, breeding programmes, and legal protections. Of the 969 species with globally increasing populations, 78.3% were under active conservation.

Notable global success stories include:

• Iberian Lynx: Rebounded from a few hundred to several thousand through breeding and habitat restoration.
• K?k?p? (New Zealand parrot): Revived via intensive monitoring and predator control.
• European Bison: Successfully reintroduced in Eastern Europe after extinction in the wild.
• Marine species such as humpback and blue whales also recovered after international moratoriums on whaling.

Island ecosystems like New Zealand, Mauritius, and the Seychelles showed the highest concentration of species recovery, while decline hotspots included the Tropical Andes, Sumatra, Malaysia, and Borneo.

Despite these successes, the study cautions that since 1980, 1,220 species of birds, mammals, and amphibians have deteriorated in Red List status compared to only 201 species that improved.

Causes include habitat loss, pollution, overexploitation, climate change, invasive species, and disease.The study called for landscape-scale conservation and ambitious implementation of Goal A of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework to halt extinction risk and restore resilient populations.

India’s Species-Specific Conservation Efforts

India has adopted a multi-pronged species-specific conservation approach, primarily under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH), 2008, which continues under the 15th Finance Commission (2021–26). The scheme focuses on critically endangered species through captive breeding, habitat restoration, and community participation.

Key initiatives include:

• Species Recovery Programme: Prioritizes 22 species (16 terrestrial and 6 aquatic) for focused conservation.
• Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant (1992): Flagship conservation efforts for apex species.
• Project Crocodile: Initiated post-Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, supported by the UN. Saltwater crocodiles in Bhitarkanika increased from 95 (1975) to 1,811.
• Sea Turtle Conservation Project (1999): Focuses on Olive Ridley Turtles, listed as Vulnerable (IUCN), Schedule I (WLPA), and Appendix I (CITES).
• Vulture Action Plan 2020–25: Aims to eliminate diclofenac use and protect food sources for vultures. India's first Vulture Conservation and Breeding Centre (VCBC) was set up in Pinjore, Haryana.
• Indian Rhino Vision 2020: Increased the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros population in Kaziranga National Park to over 2,600 (2022).
• Project Cheetah (2022): Reintroduces cheetahs extinct in India since 1952, with cheetahs from Namibia and South Africa released in Kuno National Park. India saw its first wild cheetah birth in 2023 after 75 years.
• Maharashtra’s Pangolin Action Plan: The first dedicated plan for pangolin conservation. Pangolins are listed under Schedule I of the WLPA, receiving the highest level of protection.

In News:

The 2030 Global Forest Vision (GFV), released in March 2025 by the Forest Declaration Assessment (FDA), outlines priority actions for governments to reverse forest loss and align environmental and trade policies ahead of UNFCCC COP30 (November 2025).

Background:

• The Forest Declaration Assessment (FDA) was established in 2015 to monitor progress on the New York Declaration on Forests (NYDF), a voluntary pact launched in 2014.
• NYDF includes 10 goals aimed at halting deforestation by 2030 and is supported by governments, corporations, indigenous groups, and civil society.
• India is not a signatory to the NYDF as of 2025.

Current State of Forests (Key Data):

• Despite commitments from 140 countries, 6.37 million hectares of forests were lost in 2023.
• Major drivers of deforestation:
  • Agricultural demand for palm oil, soy, beef, and timber.
  • 80% of Amazon deforestation is due to cattle ranching.
  • 800+ million trees lost between 2017–2022 to meet Brazilian beef exports.
  • In Indonesia and Malaysia, palm oil expansion threatens orangutans and Sumatran tigers.

Eight Priority Actions for Governments (GFV 2025):

1. Ambition:Integrate forest conservation into national climate and biodiversity plans and COP30 commitments.
2. Trade:Ensure legal, deforestation-free, and degradation-free trade through international partnerships.
3. Finance:Scale up results-based payments and forest carbon credit systems, as agreed in the 2024 Forest & Climate Leaders’ Statement.
4. Rights:Secure land rights of Indigenous Peoples (IPs) and Local Communities (LCs) to protect traditional forest stewardship.
5. Supervision:Mandate financial institutions to assess and manage forest-related risks.
6. Subsidies:Repurpose harmful subsidies to support sustainable food systems, bioeconomy, and forest management.
7. Governance:Align land-use sector governance with global forest and climate commitments.
8. Debt Flexibility:Recognize forests as natural capital in debt management to enhance fiscal space for forest-rich countries.

Global and Regional Efforts:

• EU Deforestation Regulation (2026):Bans imports linked to deforestation; companies must ensure supply chain transparency.
• U.S. Initiatives:Stricter laws against illegal logging and deforestation-linked imports.
• Challenges:
  • China and India have not implemented deforestation-free trade regulations.
  • Smallholder farmers lack the resources to certify products as deforestation-free.
  • Developing nations (Brazil, Indonesia, African countries) express concerns over economic impacts of stricter trade rules.

Recommendations by GFV 2025:

• Tighten Global Trade Policies:Prevent companies from rerouting products to markets with weak regulations.
• Adopt Deforestation-Free Trade Laws:India, China, and other major economies urged to enact such policies.
• Support Local Economies:Provide technical and financial support to farmers for sustainable practices.
• Enhance Global Monitoring:Improve tracking systems for forest-linked commodities and promote global cooperation.

In News:

The World Economic Forum’s (WEF) UpLink Annual Impact Report 2025 underscores the significant contributions of early-stage start-ups in tackling climate and sustainability challenges globally.

About UpLink:

• Launched: 2020 at Davos by WEF in collaboration with Deloitte and Salesforce.
• Objective: Open innovation platform to support the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by connecting entrepreneurs with experts, investors, and stakeholders.

Key Environmental and Social Impacts (2023–2024):

Category                                                                   Impact

Carbon Emissions                                                142,400 tonnes of CO? prevented (equal to emissions

                                                                         of ~30,000 cars)

Ecosystem Protection                                       140 million hectares of land and water safeguarded

Water Management                                           2.5 billion litres of hazardous wastewater treated

Waste Management                                           28 million tonnes of waste tracked

Water, Sanitation & Hygiene (WASH)    2.7 million people gained improved access

Job Creation                                                             30,000+ new jobs generated

Livelihood Support                                               ~500,000 smallholder farmers and fishers experienced

                                                                           income growth

Waste Collector Empowerment                  18,000 collectors integrated into formal markets

Notable Indian Contributions:

• Indra Water: Processed 1.2 billion litres of wastewater in 2024 (243% rise from 2022).
• S4S Technologies: Reduced 60,000 tonnes of food waste — enough to feed 2.7 million people for a month.

Global Innovations Highlighted:

• EnviCore (Canada): Uses mining waste in construction to cut emissions.
• Umgrauemeio (Brazil): AI-based wildfire monitoring across 6.7 million hectares of forests.
• SHAYP: Saved 7 billion litres of water in 2024 using leakage detection; aims for 100 billion litres by 2027.
• GreenPlat (Brazil): Tracked 12.3 million tonnes more waste in 2024 than the previous year.

Investment and Innovation Trends:

• Total Funds Raised by UpLink Ventures in 2024: $633 million (up by $196 million from 2023).
• Customer Base Growth: Nearly 50% of ventures reported over 40% increase in customers.
• Circular Economy Focus: 13 ventures supported under the Traceability for Circularity Challenge to promote ethical and waste-reducing value chains.

Future Focus Areas (Planned by UpLink):

• Sustainable mining
• Carbon capture technologies
• AI-driven environmental monitoring

In News:

India remains among the world’s most polluted countries despite slight improvements in air quality.

Published by: IQAir (Swiss Air Quality Technology Firm)

Key Findings:

• India’s Global Rank: 5th most polluted country in 2024 (improved from 3rd in 2023).
• Average PM2.5 Level (India): 50.6 µg/m³ in 2024 — 10 times higher than the WHO guideline of 5 µg/m³.
• Top Polluted Cities:
  • Byrnihat (Assam-Meghalaya border) — most polluted city globally with PM2.5 at 128.2 µg/m³.
  • Delhi — most polluted capital city globally with PM2.5 at 91.6 µg/m³.
  • 13 of the world’s 20 most polluted cities are in India, including Mullanpur, Faridabad, Gurugram, Bhiwadi, Noida, and Ganganagar.
• Northern India: Faces severe pollution due to crop stubble burning (contributes ~60% of PM2.5 levels).
• Global Air Quality: 91% of countries exceeded WHO PM2.5 safe limits; only 12 countries met the recommended levels.

Major Sources of PM2.5 Pollution:

• Vehicular emissions
• Industrial discharges
• Biomass burning (e.g., firewood, crop residue)

Health & Environmental Impact:

• Health: Linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancers; reduces life expectancy by ~5.2 years in India.
• Annual Death Toll: ~1.5 million deaths in India linked to PM2.5 exposure (2009–2019, Lancet Study).
• WHO: 99% of the world’s population breathes polluted air.

India’s Measures to Combat Air Pollution:

Initiative                                                                                     Description

NCAP (2019)        -        Aims to reduce PM levels by 20–30% in non-attainment cities by

                                       2026. Focuses on monitoring, emissions control, public awareness.

BS-VI Emission Standards    -     Implemented in 2020 for vehicles to reduce vehicular pollution.

FAME Scheme      -      Promotes electric and hybrid vehicles to cut down transport-related emissions.

PM Ujjwala Yojana        -           Provides LPG connections to reduce indoor air pollution from biomass.

GRIHA         -       Encourages eco-friendly construction practices.

GRAP            -       Emergency action plan in Delhi-NCR during high pollution episodes.

Commission for Air Quality Management   -   Coordinates air quality actions across NCR and

                                                                                      nearby areas.

Public Transport & Regulation    -     Expanding metro/bus networks, penalising high-emission vehicles.

Way Forward:

• Strengthen enforcement of emission norms for vehicles and industries.
• Promote LPG usage over biomass for cooking, especially among rural poor.
• Increase public transport options and incentivise clean technologies.
• Raise awareness and improve inter-state coordination on stubble burning.

In News:
The issue of ‘D’ (Doubtful) voters recently resurfaced in the Assam Legislative Assembly, with the Opposition demanding closure of the state’s lone detention centre (now termed a transit camp) and the tabling of the National Register of Citizens (NRC) report.

Who are ‘D’ Voters?
‘D’ voters are individuals whose Indian citizenship is under suspicion. Introduced by the Election Commission of India (ECI) in 1997 specifically for Assam, these individuals are barred from voting or contesting elections until their citizenship is verified.

Legal and Procedural Aspects:

• Not Defined in Law: The term 'Doubtful Voter' is not defined under the Citizenship Act, 1955 or the Citizenship Rules, 2003.
• As per Citizenship Rules, 2003:
  • The Local Registrar must mark individuals with doubtful citizenship in the National Population Register (NPR) for further verification.
  • Affected individuals must be informed through a prescribed format and granted a hearing before the Taluk or Sub-district Registrar.
  • A decision on citizenship status must be made within 90 days.
• Foreigners Tribunal (FT): Cases of D-voters are referred to FTs, which decide whether the person is an Indian citizen or a foreigner. Based on the verdict, individuals can be:
  • Cleared and subsequently included in the NRC and electoral rolls.
  • Declared foreigners, leading to deportation or detention.

Key Features of D-Voter Status:

• Temporary Tag: The 'D' classification is not permanent and must be resolved within a set timeframe.
• Appeal Mechanism: Individuals can appeal to the Foreigners Tribunal for clearance.
• Impact on Families: Often, some members of a family are citizens while others are tagged as D-voters, leading to legal and social complications.
• Detention Concerns: Several individuals, including potential Indian citizens, have been detained for years without a clear mechanism for release.

Recent Developments:

• Political demands in Assam include the closure of detention centres and transparency regarding NRC implementation.
• Debates continue over the legal ambiguity and humanitarian implications of the D-voter category.

In News:

‘Cali Fund’ launched at CBD COP16 in Rome to boost biodiversity finance.

Key Details:

• Launched at: COP16 to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), held in Rome in 2025.
• Purpose: The Cali Fund aims to promote the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of Digital Sequence Information (DSI) on genetic resources, marking a major step towards fulfilling Goal C and Target 13 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF)—which targets halting and reversing biodiversity loss by 2030.

Key Features of the Cali Fund:

• Origin: It builds on the multilateral mechanism adopted during COP15 (2022) and was operationalised at COP16 (2025).
• Objective:Mobilise financial contributions from the private sector to support biodiversity conservation and implementation of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).
• Hosted By: Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office (MPTFO).
• Managed By: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• Secretariat: Hosted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Funding Mechanism:

• Source of Contributions: Companies commercially utilisingDSI—genetic data from plants, animals, and microorganisms—especially in sectors like:
  • Pharmaceuticals
  • Cosmetics
  • Agriculture and biotechnology
  • Industrial biotech and AI-assisted research
• Exemptions: Academic institutions, public research bodies, and entities not reliant on DSI are exempt.
• Allocation:
  • 50% of resources are earmarked for indigenous peoples and local communities, especially women and youth, recognising their key role in biodiversity protection.

Significance:

• Global First: First UN biodiversity fund to receive direct contributions from private companies.
• Support for Biodiversity Action Plans: Assists developing countries in implementing their KMGBF targets and NBSAPs.
• Boosts Scientific Research: Enhances capabilities for storing, using, and analysing DSI.
• Promotes Collective Action: Encourages industries benefiting from biodiversity to reinvest in its protection—ushering in a new era of biodiversity finance.

About Digital Sequence Information (DSI):

• Definition: Digitally stored genetic data from DNA, RNA, and proteins.
• Use Cases: Vital for research in health, food security, climate change, conservation, and bioeconomy.
• Governance: Discussed under CBD, WHO PIP Framework, UN Law of the Sea, and others.

In News:

• The Climate Risk Index (CRI) 2025, published by the international environmental think tank Germanwatch, ranks countries based on their vulnerability to extreme weather events, assessing both human and economic losses due to climate-induced disasters.
• The index, which has been released annually since 2006, covers a 30-year period, evaluating the impact of extreme weather events in terms of economic losses, fatalities, and the number of affected people.

Key Findings:

• Global Impact: From 1993 to 2022, more than 9,400 extreme weather events occurred globally, resulting in 765,000 fatalities and USD 4.2 trillion in economic losses. Heatwaves, droughts, and floods were the leading causes of fatalities and displacement, with heatwaves alone claiming 61,778 lives (83% of fatalities) in 2022. Droughts affected the largest number of people, with 59% of the global population impacted during the past three decades.
• India's Position: India ranks as the 6th most affected country in the world by climate change between 1993 and 2022, suffering significant losses. During this period, the country experienced over 400 extreme weather events, including floods, heatwaves, cyclones, and droughts, causing a loss of USD 180 billion in economic damages and leading to at least 80,000 fatalities (10% of global deaths).

Some notable extreme weather events include:

• • Cyclones: Gujarat (1998), Odisha (1999), Hudhud (2014), and Amphan (2020).
  • Floods: Uttarakhand (2013), Jammu and Kashmir (2014), and Kerala (2018).
  • Heatwaves: Intense temperatures exceeding 50°C in 1998, 2002, 2003, and 2015.

Methodology of the Climate Risk Index

The CRI assesses the impact of extreme weather events across three hazard categories:

1. Hydrological (floods, landslides),
2. Meteorological (storms, cyclones),
3. Climatological (heatwaves, droughts).

The six key indicators used for the ranking are:

• Economic loss
• Fatalities
• Affecting population, assessed in both absolute and relative terms.

Climate Risk and Its Implications for India

India’s vulnerability to climate change is highlighted by frequent and intense extreme weather events. The country faces risks from:

• Floods: Regular heavy monsoons lead to significant displacement and damage to infrastructure and agriculture.
• Cyclones: Rising sea levels and warming oceans increase the frequency and intensity of cyclones.
• Heatwaves: India experiences rising temperatures, with heatwaves becoming more intense, contributing to health crises.
• Droughts: A growing concern, affecting agriculture and water resources.

Additionally, the Asia-Pacific Climate Report 2024 projects that India may face a 24.7% GDP loss by 2070 due to climate change impacts, driven by rising sea levels and decreasing labor productivity.

Global Challenges in Climate Change Mitigation

• Historical Responsibility vs. Future Emissions: Developed nations, despite having contributed more to global emissions historically, are pressuring emerging economies like India to take greater responsibility for climate action. This has led to tensions over burden-sharing and the need for climate finance.
• Global Temperature Breach: In 2024, the world breached the 1.5°C threshold for a full year, highlighting the inadequacy of current mitigation efforts. Projections indicate a global temperature increase of 2.6-3.1°C by 2100 if current trends continue.
• Weak Commitments and Insufficient Finance: Many countries have not updated their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and the USD 300 billion annual funding promised for developing nations is insufficient to meet climate adaptation and mitigation needs.

India's Climate Adaptation Challenges and Suggestions

India faces several climate adaptation challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, insufficient funding, and a lack of robust policy frameworks for disaster risk management. To enhance adaptation efforts, the following measures are suggested:

• Enhanced Climate Finance: Developing countries need greater financial and technical support to manage and adapt to climate-induced losses.
• Strengthening Mitigation Efforts: Nations, including India, must scale up their NDCs to restrict global warming to 1.5°C or lower.
• Accountability of High-Income Countries: Developed nations must expedite mitigation actions and increase financial contributions to support climate-vulnerable countries like India.

In News:

A new study has revealed that the coral reefs in the Gulf of Eilat (also known as the Gulf of Aqaba) faced a 3,000-year growth shutdown due to global cooling. However, these reefs later recovered naturally from deeper waters, demonstrating resilience in the face of environmental changes.

About the Gulf of Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba)

• Location: The Gulf of Eilat is a northern extension of the Red Sea, positioned east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. It is strategically significant and is also known as the Gulf of Aqaba.
• Neighbouring Nations: The Gulf shares its coastline with four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.
• Geographical Features:
  • The Gulf includes important cities like Taba (Egypt), Eilat (Israel), and Aqaba (Jordan), all located at the Gulf’s northernmost point.
  • It has a maximum depth of 1,850 meters, making it much deeper than the adjacent Gulf of Suez.
  • The Gulf forms the southern end of the Dead Sea Transform, a significant tectonic fault zone, contributing to its unique geological and environmental features.
• Coral Ecosystem: The Gulf of Eilat is home to the world’s northernmost coral reefs. Despite facing various environmental challenges, these reefs have shown remarkable resilience over the years, highlighting their ability to adapt to changing conditions.

Environmental Challenges and Recovery

• The 3,000-year growth shutdown of the coral reefs in the Gulf of Eilat was primarily driven by global cooling. This climatic phenomenon significantly impacted the growth of the reefs, causing a temporary halt in their development. However, the coral ecosystems in the Gulf have since recovered naturally, drawing from deeper waters to rebuild and thrive once again.
• This recovery underscores the resilience of coral ecosystems despite adverse environmental conditions. It also provides valuable insights into how these ecosystems can recover when given the opportunity, even after significant disruptions caused by global climate changes.

Implications for Coral Reef Conservation

• The study's findings emphasize the importance of understanding the adaptive capacity of coral reefs, which are among the most vulnerable ecosystems to climate change.
• The ability of coral reefs in the Gulf of Eilat to recover after a prolonged period of cooling demonstrates that marine ecosystems can endure long-term environmental stress if they are allowed to regenerate naturally.
• This has significant implications for global coral conservation efforts, which must focus on creating conditions that allow reefs to adapt and recover from environmental stresses, including global warming, ocean acidification, and pollution.
• The Gulf of Eilat’s coral reefs provide an important case study for understanding ecological resilience and the potential for natural recovery in marine ecosystems.

In News:

The Fulani, one of Africa’s largest and most dispersed ethnic communities, trace their ancestry to the ‘Green Sahara’ period (12,000–5,000 years ago), according to recent genetic and anthropological research. This period, when the Sahara was a fertile, habitable landscape, marks the early development of African pastoralism.

The Fulani population is estimated at 40 million, spread across West and Central Africa, from Senegal and Guinea in the west to Lake Chad in the east. They are particularly concentrated in Nigeria, Mali, Guinea, Senegal, and Niger, and inhabit the Sahel-Savannah belt, straddling arid and semi-arid regions.

Nomadic Lifestyle and Social Structure

Traditionally known for their nomadic pastoralism, the Fulani have maintained a unique socio-cultural identity despite centuries of migration and contact with other African populations. Their society is internally diverse, divided into three main groups:

• Makiyaya: Nomadic herders
• FulaninSoro: Town dwellers
• Bararo: Forest dwellers, with strong ties to ancestral rituals and nature-based belief systems

Fulani communities are largely egalitarian, with a deep emphasis on kinship, family structure, and communal responsibility. Polygamy is widely practiced, and marriage ceremonies are elaborate, often involving intricate rituals and festive celebrations.

Women’s Role and Cultural Expression

Fulani women are recognized for their weaving, artisanal craftsmanship, and particularly their hairstyles, which are often elaborately styled and adorned with beads and cowrie shells—symbols of both identity and aesthetic tradition.

Linguistic and Religious Identity

The Fulani speak Fula (also called Fulfulde or Pulaar), a language belonging to the Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Though largely Muslim, many retain spiritual connections with nature-based traditions, particularly among the Bararo groups.

Genetic Heritage and Historical Significance

A recent multinational study led by Uppsala University and Charles University analyzed biological and anthropological data from 460 Fulani individuals across 18 locations in seven African countries. It confirmed a complex genetic history, shaped by:

• Ancient North African ancestry, particularly linked to populations akin to modern-day Berbers of Morocco
• Historical interactions with West, Central, and East African communities
• A shared ancestral genetic component, likely rooted in early pastoral communities of the Green Sahara era

The research underscores that despite their high mobility and limited archaeological footprint, the Fulani have preserved a distinct genetic and cultural identity for millennia.

In News:

The Aroma Mission, also known as the Lavender Revolution, is emerging as a transformative initiative for regions like Jammu & Kashmir and the North East, prioritised under Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s vision for inclusive development.

It aims to harness the untapped potential of India’s biodiverse regions through the scientific cultivation of aromatic crops and production of essential oils, with the dual goals of economic upliftment and sustainable innovation.

Key Objectives and Features:

• Launched By: Ministry of Science & Technology
• Nodal Agency: CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow
• Started In: Jammu & Kashmir, now extended to the North East
• Known As: Lavender Revolution
• Purpose: Boost India’s aroma industry by promoting the cultivation of high-value aromatic crops and increasing the production of essential oils.

Major Focus Areas:

• Crops Cultivated: Lavender, lemongrass, citronella, palmarosa, vetiver, patchouli, rose, peppermint, and chamomile
• Target Sectors: Cosmetics, aromatherapy, pharmaceuticals, and food flavouring industries

Impact and Achievements:

• Over 5,000 hectares brought under aromatic crop cultivation in the North East.
• Establishment of 39 essential oil distillation units.
• Distribution of 1 lakh agarwood saplings planned to boost the region's share in global aromatic plant trade.
• Expected annual essential oil production: 2,000 tonnes, valued at over ?300 crores.
• Estimated to generate 60 lakh man-days of rural employment.
• Projected increase in farmers’ income by ?60,000–?70,000 per hectare annually.

Institutional Support: IICON – Incubation and Innovation Complex

• Location: CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Technology (CSIR-NEIST), Jorhat, Assam
• Launched By: Dr. Jitendra Singh (Minister of Science & Technology)
• Purpose: Provide technical assistance, advanced facilities, and business incubation support for startups, MSMEs, and SHGs.
• Facilities: Access to 27 cutting-edge technologies for up to two years to help refine production and marketing strategies.

Integrated Development Approach:

The Aroma Mission exemplifies the “whole-of-government” approach, aligning with various flagship programmes such as:

• Start-Up India
• MSME Development
• Doubling Farmers’ Income
• Women Empowerment (e.g., through Rural Women Technology Parks)
• Act East Policy (enhancing North East's connectivity and trade potential)

Over 25 startups and self-help groups have already been empowered through access to facilities and entrepreneurial training at IICON, contributing to local innovation ecosystems.

Strategic Significance:

• Regional Empowerment: Converts underutilised natural resources into economic assets, especially in remote regions like J&K and the North East.
• Environmental Sustainability: Encourages eco-friendly cultivation and reduces pressure on traditional farming.
• Economic Diversification: Supports India’s transition to a bio-economy, with aromatic plant industries offering export potential and rural employment.
• Vision India@2047: Positions the North East as a hub for biotechnology, essential oils, innovation, and trade, aligning with long-term national growth goals.

In News:

The Rushikulya river mouth in Odisha is witnessing the anticipated mass nesting of Olive Ridley turtles — a critical event for the survival of this vulnerable marine species. This phenomenon, known as arribada, highlights the ecological significance of India’s coastal biodiversity and the urgent need for marine conservation.

About Olive Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea)

• Taxonomy:
  • Scientific Name: Lepidochelys olivacea
  • Class: Reptilia
  • Family: Cheloniidae
• Physical Features: These turtles are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtle species. They are recognized by their olive or grayish-green heart-shaped carapace. Males and females are similar in size, though females have slightly rounder shells.
• Habitat and Distribution: Olive Ridleys are found in warm, tropical waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, inhabiting both open ocean (pelagic) and coastal waters.

Mass Nesting: The Arribada Phenomenon

• Arribada (Spanish for "arrival") refers to the synchronized mass nesting behavior where thousands of females gather on a single beach to lay eggs.
• Nesting occurs annually between December and March, after long migrations of up to 9,000 km. Each female may lay 90–120 eggs, 1 to 3 times per season.
• Temperature-dependent sex determination influences hatchling sex ratios.
• After nesting, females return to the sea, leaving eggs buried in sand.

Major Nesting Sites in India

• Odisha Coast is the most significant nesting ground in India and globally:
  • Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary: World’s largest mass nesting site.
  • Rushikulya River Mouth: Second-largest nesting beach in India.
  • Devi River Mouth: Another key nesting site in Odisha.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands have recently emerged as a new mass nesting area, with over 5,000 nests reported in one season.

Ecological Role and Behavior

• Diet: Omnivorous — they feed on jellyfish, crabs, snails, prawns, molluscs, algae, and small fish.
• Behavior: These turtles undertake long migrations annually between feeding and breeding grounds, spending most of their lives at sea.

Protection Status

• IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
• CITES: Appendix I
• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (India): Schedule I (highest protection)

Threats to Survival

• Bycatch in Fishing Gear: Accidental entanglement in trawls, gillnets, and longlines.
• Habitat Loss: Coastal development for ports, tourism, and industry disrupts nesting beaches.
• Poaching: Turtles and their eggs are harvested for meat, shell, and leather.
• Pollution: Plastic ingestion and marine debris pose severe health risks.
• Climate Change: Rising sea levels and increased sand temperatures impact nesting and hatchling sex ratios.

Conservation Initiatives

• Operation Olivia: Initiated by the Indian Coast Guard in the 1980s to protect turtles during nesting and prevent illegal fishing.
• Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs): Mandated by the Odisha government in trawl nets; allow turtles to escape while retaining fish catch.
• Tagging Programs: Use of non-corrosive metal tags to study migration patterns and inform conservation strategies.

In News:

The Global Investment Trends Monitor Report 2024, released by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), highlights a concerning decline in international project finance and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), particularly in developing economies. This has significant implications for sustainable development, especially in emerging economies like India.

Key Findings from the UNCTAD Report (2024)

Global FDI Trends:

• Global FDI flows, after adjusting for conduit economies, fell by 8% in 2024, despite a nominal increase to USD 1.4 trillion.
• Developed economies witnessed a 15% drop in FDI (excluding conduit economies like Ireland and Luxembourg), while developing economies saw a 2% decline.
• The decline threatens long-term investment in infrastructure, renewable energy, and other SDG-aligned sectors.

Project Finance and Greenfield Investment:

• International project finance declined by 29% in developed and 23% in developing economies.
• In terms of value, developing economies faced a sharper fall of 33%.
• Key countries like India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, and Mexico reported steeper declines than the global average.
• Greenfield investments fell 6% in developing regions, with Africa and Asia being worst affected.

Sectoral Impacts:

• Investments in SDG-related sectors (e.g., water, sanitation, agrifood systems, and infrastructure) declined by 11%.
• International renewable energy finance fell 16%, with North America (-22%) and developing Asia (-18%) seeing notable contractions.
• Africa was the only region to witness an 8% increase in renewable energy project finance.

India’s FDI Landscape: Trends, Opportunities, and Challenges

Recent Performance:

• Between April 2000 and September 2024, India received over USD 1 trillion in cumulative FDI.
• From 2014 to 2024, India attracted USD 667.4 billion, a 119% increase over the previous decade.
• In 2024, India’s greenfield projects grew, but international project finance fell 23% in number and 33% in value.

Regulatory Framework:

• FDI is regulated under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999, administered by DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
• Prohibited sectors: Atomic energy, betting, lotteries, chit funds, tobacco, and real estate (excluding construction development).

Outlook for 2025 and Strategic Opportunities

Global FDI Projections:

• UNCTAD anticipates moderate global FDI growth in 2025.
• Regions like ASEAN, Eastern Europe, and Central America may benefit from supply chain realignments.
• India is projected to see a moderate rise in FDI, aided by:
  • Improved financing conditions,
  • Mergers and acquisitions,
  • Ongoing policy reforms.

Key Growth Sectors:

• High potential in AI, cloud computing, cybersecurity, electric vehicles, and green hydrogen.
• FDI will be influenced by geopolitical dynamics, interest rates, GDP growth, and technological transitions.

FDI in India: Opportunities and Challenges

Opportunities:

• Large consumer base (1.4 billion population) and young workforce (65% under 35).
• Government schemes like Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat incentivize foreign investment.
• Strategic location positions India as a gateway to South Asia, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.

Challenges:

• Regulatory complexity, including retrospective taxation and bureaucratic delays.
• Infrastructure deficits, particularly outside urban hubs.
• Rigid labour laws and inconsistent policy enforcement.

Investor Expectations:

• Technology transfer in priority sectors.
• Employment generation to absorb India’s growing labor force.
• Sustainable investments in line with India’s climate commitments under the National Action Plan on Climate Change.

In News:

A three-year study was conducted on a 23-hectare DDT-contaminated former tree nursery in southern Sweden. Researchers mixed biochar into sections of the contaminated soil and planted different crops, including pumpkins, legumes, grasses, and willows.

Key findings:

• Reduction of DDT Uptake: The presence of biochar reduced DDT absorption by soil organisms, cutting the toxin uptake by earthworms in half.
• Enhanced Soil Health: Biochar improved soil structure, fertility, and microbial activity.
• Cost-Effective Alternative: Unlike traditional soil removal methods, which are expensive and labor-intensive, biochar treatment offers a sustainable and economical approach.
• Support for Renewable Energy: The method allows for the growth of bioenergy crops such as willow trees, further contributing to environmental benefits.

Implications for Future Agricultural Practices

This breakthrough provides a viable approach to rehabilitate contaminated lands worldwide. Many regions, including India, still grapple with DDT contamination. While India banned agricultural use of DDT in 1972, it continues to be used for disease control under strict regulations. The application of biochar could significantly aid in soil restoration and sustainable land management

About DDT

• Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a synthetic insecticide first introduced in 1939. It was widely used in agriculture and public health initiatives to control vector-borne diseases like malaria.
• However, despite its effectiveness against pests, DDT’s persistence in the environment led to severe ecological and health concerns.
• It degrades slowly, accumulates in fatty tissues, and disrupts ecosystems by affecting soil fertility, harming wildlife, and posing potential human health risks, including endocrine disruption and carcinogenic effects.

Challenges Posed by DDT-Contaminated Soils

The prolonged use of DDT has resulted in extensive soil contamination, making land infertile and unsuitable for cultivation. Conventional methods of decontamination, such as soil excavation and disposal, are expensive and environmentally unsustainable.

Biochar as a Solution

Researchers at Sweden’s Chalmers University of Technology have developed an innovative method to restore DDT-contaminated soils by integrating biochar.

What is Biochar?

Biochar is a charcoal-like material produced by burning organic waste in a controlled oxygen-limited environment (pyrolysis). It is known for its ability to enhance soil quality, bind contaminants, and store carbon for extended periods.

In News:

The World Economic Forum (WEF) recently released the Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025 report. The report examines cybersecurity trends, key challenges, and necessary strategies to enhance global cyber resilience.

About Global Cybersecurity Outlook 2025

Produced in collaboration with Accenture, the report highlights major cybersecurity issues influenced by geopolitical tensions, emerging technologies, supply chain complexities, and cybercrime advancements.

Key Issues Highlighted

• Geopolitical Conflicts:

• Ongoing conflicts, such as the Russia-Ukraine war, have increased cyber vulnerabilities in critical sectors like energy, telecommunications, and nuclear power.
• Nearly 60% of organizations state that geopolitical tensions have impacted their cybersecurity strategies.

• Cybersecurity Readiness:

• Two-thirds of organizations foresee AI impacting cybersecurity, yet only one-third have the tools to assess AI-related risks.
• Smaller organizations face significant challenges in adopting AI-driven security measures.

• Cyber Skills Gap:

• As of 2024, there is a shortage of 4.8 million cybersecurity professionals globally.
• Only 14% of organizations have a skilled workforce to manage current cybersecurity threats.
• Public-sector organizations are notably impacted, with 49% reporting a shortage in cybersecurity talent.

• Supply Chain Interdependencies:

• Over 50% of large organizations identify supply chain complexity as a barrier to cyber resilience.
• Vulnerabilities in third-party software, cyberattacks, and enforcement issues in security standards are key concerns.

• Cybercrime Sophistication:

• Cybercriminals are increasingly leveraging generative AI tools for automated and personalized attacks, including phishing and social engineering.
• In 2024, 42% of organizations experienced phishing and deepfake attacks.

• Regulatory Challenges: 70% of organizations reported that complex cybersecurity regulations cause compliance issues.

Impacts

• Critical Infrastructure:
  • Cyberattacks on essential infrastructure, such as water utilities, satellites, and power grids, pose severe risks to public safety.
  • Example: A 2024 cyberattack on a U.S. water utility disrupted operations, highlighting vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure systems.
• Biosecurity Risks:
  • Advancements in AI, cyberattacks, and genetic engineering create risks for bio-laboratories and research institutions.
  • Incidents in South Africa and the UK underscore these threats.
• Economic Disparities: Developed regions like Europe and North America demonstrate stronger cyber resilience compared to emerging economies such as Africa and Latin America.
• Transition Issues to Renewable Energy (RE): The shift to renewable energy introduces new cybersecurity risks, making power grids attractive targets for cybercriminals.

Factors Increasing Cybersecurity Complexity

• Supply Chain Vulnerabilities: Increasingly complex supply chains create risks with limited oversight, enabling cyberattacks to spread across interconnected systems.
• Geopolitical Tensions: Conflicts have driven advanced cyber strategies targeting critical infrastructure.
• AI-Driven Threats: Generative AI enables scalable malware deployment and sophisticated multilingual social engineering attacks.
• Cyber Skills Gap: A growing 8% skills gap leaves two-thirds of organizations unable to meet cybersecurity demands.
• Convergence of Cybercrime and Organized Crime: Rising cyber-enabled fraud has attracted organized crime groups, amplifying social impact.
• Climate-Linked Cyber Risks: Energy grids are increasingly targeted due to their reliance on evolving energy systems.
• Quantum Vulnerabilities: Quantum computing poses risks to public-key encryption, which is essential for securing digital systems.

Way Forward

Strategic Investment:

• Cybersecurity must be viewed as a strategic investment rather than a technical expense.
• Governments are encouraged to modernize legacy systems and upgrade operational technologies to protect critical sectors.

Public-Private Collaboration:

• Collaboration between business and cybersecurity leaders is essential for sharing threat intelligence and enhancing resilience.
• Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) may require government incentives to enhance cybersecurity.

Skills Development: Expanding specialized training programs, certifications, and incentives is crucial to addressing the cybersecurity skills gap.

Focus on Resilience Over Prevention: Nations must prioritize resilience by enhancing response mechanisms, crisis management frameworks, and ensuring continuity of services.

International Cooperation:

• Collaborative efforts through forums like the United Nations (UN) and G20 can strengthen global cybersecurity frameworks.
• Developed nations should assist emerging economies in improving cyber resilience.

Current Framework for Cybersecurity in India

• Legislative Measures:
  • Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act)
  • Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023
• Institutional Framework:
  • Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In)
  • National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC)
  • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)
  • Cyber Swachhta Kendra
• Strategic Initiatives:
  • Bharat National Cybersecurity Exercise 2024
  • National Cyber Security Policy, 2013
• Sector-Specific Regulations:
  • Cybersecurity Framework for SEBI Regulated Entities
  • Telecommunications (Critical Telecommunication Infrastructure) Rules, 2024

In News:

Iran has announced plans to relocate its capital from Tehran to the Makran coastal region due to economic and environmental concerns.

Reasons Behind Relocation

• Overcrowding and Resource Constraints: Tehran, the capital for over 200 years since the Qajar dynasty (1794-1925), faces overpopulation, air pollution, water scarcity, and energy shortages.
• Strategic Importance of Makran: Located in Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Makran’s proximity to the Gulf of Oman enhances its potential for economic development.
• Economic and Maritime Significance: Home to key ports like Chabahar, Makran is vital for Iran’s petroleum reserves and coastal trade.
• Geopolitical Considerations: The development of Makran as an international trade hub could strengthen Iran’s economic ties with Central Asia and the Indian Ocean region.

About Makran

• Geographical Overview: A semi-desert coastal plateau shared by Pakistan and Iran, bordered by the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman.
• Key Ports and Trade Routes: Gwadar (Pakistan) and Chabahar (Iran) serve as critical gateways to the Strait of Hormuz, a global oil supply route.

Alexander’s Invasion and Makran’s Historical Significance

Background of Alexander’s Invasion (327–325 BCE)

• Entry into India: Alexander, King of Macedonia (336-323 BCE), entered India via the Khyber Pass after conquering Kabul.
• Key Battles:
  • Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum): Faced and defeated King Porus, later reinstating him as an ally.
  • Retreat at Hyphasis (Beas River): His army, exhausted and wary of the Nanda Empire’s strength, refused to march further east.

The Gedrosian Desert March

• Extreme Hardships: While retreating through the Makran Desert, Alexander lost a third of his army to dehydration, starvation, and exhaustion.
• Comparison with Cyrus the Great: Unlike Cyrus II, who failed to cross the desert, Alexander’s army endured the harsh terrain, albeit with heavy casualties.

Impact of Alexander’s Invasion on India

• Cultural and Trade Exchanges: Facilitated early Indo-Greek interactions and opened key trade routes linking South Asia and Europe.
• Greek Settlements: Established cities like Alexandria (Kabul) and Boukephala (Jhelum), influencing local governance and trade.
• Mauryan Expansion: Weakened regional rulers enabled Chandragupta Maurya to establish the Mauryan Empire.
• Influence on Art and Culture: Indo-Greek fusion led to the Gandhara School of Art, integrating Greek and Indian artistic traditions.

In News:

Preserving India’s sacred groves can help country achieve its conservation & climate goals.