In News:

Ukraine has claimed responsibility for a recent underwater explosion that damaged the Kerch Bridge, a critical transport link connecting mainland Russia to occupied Crimea. The attack underscores the strategic importance of the Kerch Strait in the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict.

Kerch Strait: Geographical and Strategic Overview

• Location: The Kerch Strait forms the only maritime passage between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
• Geographical Boundaries:
  • West: Kerch Peninsula (Crimea)
  • East: Taman Peninsula (Russia)
• Width: Narrows to 3–5 km at its tightest point near the Chushka Spit.
• Nearby City: Kerch, located on the Crimean side, lies near the strait’s midsection.
• Strategic Importance:
  • A vital shipping lane for transporting goods and military supplies.
  • Gained heightened geopolitical importance after Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014.
  • Frequently features in Russia–Ukraine maritime tensions.

Kerch Strait Bridge (Crimean Bridge)

• Length: 19 km, making it the longest bridge in Europe.
• Completed: In 2018
• Connectivity: Includes dual road and railway tracks, linking the Russian mainland to Crimea.
• Symbolism: Considered a symbol of Russia’s control over Crimea post-2014 annexation.
• Strategic Use: Facilitates military logistics and civilian transit; crucial for sustaining Russian presence in Crimea.

In News:

600-million-year-old stromatolites in the Himalayas tell the story of an ocean lost and Earth’s first breath.

What are Stromatolites?

Stromatolites are organo-sedimentary structures formed by the entrapment of calcium carbonate precipitates by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in shallow marine environments. These layered, dome-shaped mounds represent some of the earliest evidence of life on Earth, with their formation driven by photosynthetic microbial mats.

• Composition: Typically found in limestone, shale, and sandstone.
• Structure: Characterized by laminated layers that may appear flat, dome-shaped, or columnar.
• Habitat (Ancient & Modern): Mostly marine; some ancient forms inhabited freshwater and intertidal zones. Today, living stromatolites survive in limited saline lagoons and bays.

Latest Discovery: Chambaghat, Himachal Pradesh

A major stromatolite outcrop, dating back 600 million years, was recently found in Chambaghat, Solan district, Himachal Pradesh. These structures lie within the Krol Group of sedimentary rocks — a part of the ancient Tethys Sea that existed before the Indian plate collided with Eurasia.

• Elevation: Found at 5,000–6,000 ft above sea level, showcasing tectonic uplift.
• Age Significance: Though not the oldest globally or in India, these are among the younger but well-preserved stromatolites, possibly from the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary (~543–548 million years ago).

Scientific Importance

• Geological Record: Stromatolites document Earth's atmospheric shift from a greenhouse gas-rich to an oxygen-rich environment — a transformation driven by photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
• The Great Oxidation Event (GOE): Occurred ~2.4 billion years ago, when oxygen produced by cyanobacteria began accumulating in the atmosphere, enabling the evolution of multicellular life.
• Tectonic History: Their presence in the Himalayas illustrates the story of the Gondwana supercontinent, India’s northward drift, and the closure of the Tethys Sea.

Global and Indian Context

• Oldest Stromatolites (Global): ~3.6 billion years old from Western Australia.
• Oldest in India: ~2.5 billion years old in the Dharwar Supergroup, Karnataka.

Prominent Stromatolite Sites in India:

Region                                                      Geological Feature

Chitrakoot, Uttar Pradesh                    Columnar stromatolites in Vindhyan limestones

Morni Hills, Haryana                            Preserved stromatolites in dolomite

Mussoorie & Nainital, Uttarakhand    Precambrian marine stromatolites in Krol Belt

Jaisalmer Fossil Park, Rajasthan         Protected Mesozoic marine fossil site

Dharwar Supergroup, Karnataka        Neoarchean stromatolites (~2.6 billion years old)

Bhima Basin, Karnataka                      Precambrian stromatolites in shallow marine limestones

Preservation and Geoheritage

Geologists and experts advocate for declaring Chambaghat as a Geoheritage Park, involving local communities and schools to foster awareness. The goal is to integrate science with tourism, conservation, and education.

• Challenge: Many stromatolitic sites across India face neglect or risk from mining and construction, despite their scientific and educational potential.
• Appeal: Proposal for UNESCO Geoheritage status to protect and promote this prehistoric legacy.

In News:

The Ministry of Home Affairs, in its 2023–24 annual report (Dec 2024), announced a significant update to India’s coastline length — revised from 7,516.6 km to 11,098.8 km. This change was not due to any new territorial acquisition or geological activity but resulted from improved measurement techniques, reflecting the "coastline paradox" in geography.

What Is the Coastline Paradox?

The coastline paradox, first explained by British mathematician Lewis Fry Richardson and later expanded by Benoît Mandelbrot, shows that the length of a coastline increases with finer measurement scales. This is because coastlines, like fractals, reveal more detail (creeks, estuaries, inlets) the more closely they are examined.

• Using large-scale maps (e.g., 1:4,500,000), previous estimates missed finer details.
• Modern tools allow capturing every tidal creek, sandbar, and estuarine curve, dramatically increasing measured length.

Measurement Methodology (2024 Update)

Aspect                                              Details

Agencies Involved                          National Hydrographic Office (NHO), Survey of India

Previous Map Scale                        1:4,500,000 (1970s)

New Map Scale                               1:250,000 (electronic navigation charts)

Key Technologies                            GIS, LIDAR-GPS, satellite altimetry, drone imaging

Reference Line Used                       Highwater Line (based on 2011 data)

Mapped Features Included            Tidal creeks, sandbars, estuaries, low-tide islands

Review Frequency                           Every 10 years from 2024–25

Geographical and Strategic Overview

• India’s New Coastline Length: 11,098.8 km
• No New Land Added: No change in land boundaries or annexation.
• Coastal States & UTs: 11 coastal States + 2 UTs (Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep)
• State with Longest Coastline: Gujarat (~1,600 km)

Why This Matters

1. Maritime Security

• Longer coast = More area to monitor and protect.
• Post-26/11, India enhanced coastal surveillance (radar grid, coastal police).
• Navy and Coast Guard deployment strategies need updates.

2. Disaster Management

• Accurate coastline data helps in cyclone, tsunami early warning systems (e.g., Odisha).
• Supports better Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) mapping.

3. Economic and Strategic Planning

• Affects Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and fishing rights.
• Informs infrastructure development: ports, shipping, Sagarmala, tourism.
• Boosts India’s aspirations in the Blue Economy.

In News:

In May 2025, Mount Marapi, one of Indonesia’s most active volcanoes, erupted, spewing a column of volcanic ash 1.5 km into the sky. The event has once again highlighted the seismic vulnerability of the Pacific Ring of Fire, where tectonic activity frequently triggers volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

About Mount Marapi

• Location: Situated in the Padang Highlands of western Sumatra, Indonesia.
• Type: A stratovolcano (composite volcano), consisting of successive layers of lava, ash, and pyroclastic material.
• Elevation: Rises to 2,891 meters (9,485 feet) above sea level, making it the highest peak in the region.
• Summit Feature: Contains the Bancah caldera (approx. 1.4 km wide), with multiple overlapping craters.
• Tectonic Setting: Lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a highly seismically active zone encircling the Pacific Ocean.
• Notable Eruption: In 1979, a deadly eruption-induced lahar (volcanic mudflow) caused by intense rainfall resulted in 60 fatalities.

In News:

Naini Lake record-low water levels in 2025.

Geographical and Environmental Significance

• Location: Heart of Nainital, Uttarakhand.
• Type: Natural, kidney-shaped freshwater lake.
• Surroundings: Enclosed by seven hills.
• Deepest Point: 89 feet.
• Gauge Level: 12 feet (normal level).
• Water Level (2025): 4.7 feet – lowest in 5 years, nearing “zero level”.
• Zero Level Meaning: Water level below normal gauge, not fully dry.

Ecological & Civic Importance

• Water Source: Supplies 10 million litres/day of drinking water.
• 2024 Dependence: Met 76% of Nainital’s water demand.
• Aquifer Recharge:Sukhatal Lake is a major recharge zone.

Factors Behind Depletion

1. Climate Variability

• Rising Temperatures: +1.5°C rise in Uttarakhand (1970–2022).
• Rainfall Data:
  • 2022: 2400 mm (good year).
  • 2024: Dropped to 2000 mm.
• Winter Rainfall (Jan–Mar 2025): 107 mm.
• Snowfall Days:
  • 2022: Four.
  • 2025: None.

2. Anthropogenic Pressures

• Urbanisation& Encroachment:
  • Concrete construction → low rainwater infiltration.
  • Encroachments on wetlands and recharge zones.
• Pollution Issues:
  • Untreated wastewater discharge.
  • Improper solid waste disposal.
  • Overflowing sewage into stormwater drains.
• Tourism & Homestays:
  • High tourist influx.
  • Rise in homestays; ~1 in 3 houses converted.

Institutional & Governance Challenges

• Overlapping Jurisdictions:
  • Inadequate coordination among agencies.
• Aging Infrastructure:
  • Old water distribution system, unable to meet demand.
• Reports Highlighting Issues:
  • USCST 2017:Naini Lake most manipulated among Kumaon lakes.
  • 2024 Research (CEDAR): Faulty water governance exacerbating stress.

Legal and Civic Interventions

• SC Intervention (1993): Ban on commercial complex projects.
• Uttarakhand HC (2022): Stay on Sukhatal beautification project.
• Petitions Filed: Alleging degradation due to construction on recharge areas.

Way Forward

• Ecosystem-Based Approach: Recognize catchment area, slope vulnerability, and recharge zones.
• Rejuvenation Focus:Prioritisenatural hydrological restoration over tourism promotion.
• Sustainable Urban Planning: Regulation of construction, homestays, and infrastructure development.

In News:

A recent study by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) has shed new light on the role of equatorial cloud bands in determining the movement and intensity of monsoon rainfall over India. These insights could enhance the accuracy of seasonal and sub-seasonal climate models.

Key Findings of the Study:

• Importance of Cloud Band Strength:
  • The northward movement of monsoon cloud bands—crucial for triggering wet spells in India—is not guaranteed. Only strong cloud bands originating near the equator successfully propagate northward.
  • Weak cloud bands fail to initiate wet spells, countering earlier assumptions that all cloud bands move north regardless of strength.
• Role of BSISO:
  • The Boreal Summer Intraseasonal Oscillation (BSISO) governs alternating wet and dry spells during the monsoon. It helps transport convection (cloud activity and heat) from the Indian Ocean towards the Indian subcontinent.
  • The size and strength of the cloud band influenced by BSISO determine the duration and intensity of wet phases.
• Air-Sea Interaction:
  • Moisture buildup and wind strength, both vital for rain formation, are heavily influenced by air-sea interaction in the equatorial Indian Ocean.
  • Strong coupling between the ocean and atmosphere enhances atmospheric moisture, aiding cloud formation and monsoon intensity.
• Impact of Climate Change:
  • With rising global temperatures, background atmospheric moisture is expected to increase.
  • This is projected to lead to a 42%–63% rise in rainfall during wet spells across India and surrounding seas in the future.
• Modeling and Forecasting:
  • The study's findings help address gaps in current climate models, improving forecasts for monsoon rains at both seasonal and sub-seasonal scales.

What is BSISO?

• A large-scale monsoon phenomenon active between June and September.
• Alternates between active (rainy) and break (dry) spells.
• Modulated by global oceanic phenomena such as:
  • El Niño: Weakens northward propagation of BSISO.
  • La Niña: Enhances BSISO movement towards India.

Key Facts About Indian Monsoon:

• Monsoon Etymology: Derived from Arabic "mausim", meaning season.

Types of Monsoons in India:

1. Southwest Monsoon (June–September):
   • Also called the advancing monsoon.
   • Brings 80% of India's annual rainfall.
   • Driven by low pressure over the Indian subcontinent and high pressure over the Indian Ocean.
2. Northeast Monsoon (October–December):
   • Known as the retreating monsoon.
   • Affects southeastern coastal regions, especially Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

Key Influencing Factors:

• Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): Moves northward in summer, attracting moisture-laden winds.
• Tibetan Plateau Heating: Generates the Tropical Easterly Jet, enhancing monsoon inflow.
• Somali Jet: Strengthens monsoon winds from the Arabian Sea.
• Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):
  • Positive IOD (warmer west): Enhances monsoon.
  • Negative IOD (warmer east): Weakens it.
• ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation):
  • El Niño: Linked with weaker monsoons and droughts.
  • La Niña: Associated with stronger and prolonged monsoon spells.

In News:

The Maasai, a prominent indigenous community in East Africa, are resisting international carbon credit projects in Tanzania. They fear these initiatives may lead to land dispossession and the erosion of their traditional pastoralist lifestyle.

Who are the Maasai?

• Ethnic Group: Semi-nomadic pastoralists found primarily in Tanzania and Kenya, especially in the Great Rift Valley and semi-arid savannas.
• Language:Maa (Eastern Sudanic branch, Nilo-Saharan family).
• Cultural Identity:
  • Known for distinct attire, beadwork, and warrior traditions.
  • Socially organized through patrilineal clans, divided into moieties and age-sets (from junior warriors to senior elders).
  • Youth (Morans) undergo bush training for resilience and discipline.
• Livelihood:
  • Rely on cattle, sheep, and goats for milk, meat, and blood.
  • Practice transhumance, moving seasonally for water and pasture.
  • Reside in kraals—circular enclosures with mud-dung houses and thorn fences.

Carbon Credit Projects and Rising Tensions

• Projects Involved:
  • Longido and Monduli Rangelands Carbon Project (Volkswagen ClimatePartners).
  • Resilient Tarangire Ecosystem Project (The Nature Conservancy).
• Area Affected: Nearly 2 million hectares of Maasai grazing land.
• Project Goal: Store soil carbon and sell offsets to polluters globally.

Maasai Concerns and Resistance

• Forced Land-Use Changes:Carbon projects impose structured rotational grazing (e.g., 14-day grazing cycles), disrupting centuries-old mobility practices.
• Lack of Consultation:Research by the Maasai International Solidarity Alliance (MISA) shows widespread violations of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC).
  • Women and youth were excluded from consultations.
  • Some communities unknowingly entered 30–40 year contracts.
  • Payments were often tokenistic and poorly explained.
• Economic and Legal Risks:
  • Villages lack clarity on revenue shares from credits.
  • Contracts lock communities into rigid systems despite village land-use plans being reviewed every 10 years.
  • Intermediaries—not end buyers—dominate the agreements.

Government and Global Dimensions

• Tanzania’s Push:The government expects $1 billion/year from carbon credit sales and is streamlining the sector through the National Carbon Monitoring Centre (NCMC).
• Global Scrutiny:
  • Investigations reveal over 90% of rainforest offsets by some certifiers are ineffective.
  • Soil carbon in semi-arid areas (like Maasai rangelands) is volatile and hard to quantify.

Grassroots Resistance and Legal Action

• Cultural and Spiritual Attachment:Land is integral to Maasai identity, beyond livestock rearing—it holds spiritual and cultural significance.
• Legal Mobilization:Young warriors, once defending livestock from predators, now advocate legally to protect ancestral land.MISA, formed after violent evictions in 2022 (Ngorongoro, Loliondo), spearheads resistance against exploitative schemes.

In News:

Mount Kenya, Africa’s second-highest peak after Kilimanjaro, is witnessing a dramatic loss of its glacial cover due to accelerating climate change. Scientists warn that the mountain may become completely ice-free by 2030.

Key Findings:

• The Lewis Glacier, once one of the most prominent ice bodies on Mount Kenya, has experienced substantial shrinkage.
• A 2011 study by the University of Innsbruck (Austria) reported a 90% volume loss in Lewis Glacier between 1934 and 2010.
• A 2023 satellite analysis revealed that only 4.2% of the ice present in 1900 remains today.

About Mount Kenya:

• Location: Central Kenya, just south of the Equator.
• Elevation:5,199 meters (17,058 feet) at its highest peak, Batian.
• Geological Nature: An extinct stratovolcano, heavily eroded over millennia.
• Glaciers: Includes Lewis Glacier and Tyndall Glacier, among the last surviving tropical glaciers in Africa.
• UNESCO Status: Declared a World Heritage Site in 1997 for its ecological and cultural value.

In News:

To mark its 25th anniversary, the Union Minister of Earth Sciences inaugurated two landmark facilities—Polar Bhavan and Sagar Bhavan—at the NCPOR campus in Vasco da Gama, Goa.

About NCPOR

• Established: 25 May 1998 (originally as the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research – NCAOR).
• Status: Autonomous R&D institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
• Headquarters: Vasco da Gama, Goa.
• Governing Body: Includes 13 members; the Secretary of MoES serves as the ex-officio Chairman.

Mandate and Key Functions

• Polar Research Leadership:
  • Manages India's scientific stations:
    • Antarctica: Maitri and Bharati
    • Arctic: Himadri
    • Himalayas: Himansh
  • Coordinates India’s Antarctic, Arctic, Southern Ocean, and Himalayan expeditions.
• Oceanic Research:
  • Implements projects under the Deep Ocean Mission.
  • Conducts Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) mapping and continental shelf surveys.
  • Explores deep-sea minerals, gas hydrates, and metal sulphides.
• Policy Implementation:
  • Supports India’s Arctic Policy (2022) and Indian Antarctic Act (2022):
    • Antarctic Act: Provides legal framework for governance and environmental protection via CAG-EP (Committee on Antarctic Governance and Environmental Protection).
    • Arctic Policy: Based on six pillars—science, environment, development, connectivity, governance, and capacity building.
• Scientific Logistics and Collaboration:
  • Operates research vessels (e.g., ORV Sagar Kanya).
  • Engages in international polar networks and climate monitoring programs.
  • Maintains India’s Antarctic Data Centre and conducts climate modelling.

New Facilities at NCPOR

Polar Bhavan:

• Area: 11,378 sq. m | Cost: ?55 crore
• Features:
  • Advanced polar and ocean research laboratories
  • Science on Sphere (SOS) 3D visualization platform
  • Accommodation for 55 scientists
  • Conference halls, library
  • Home to India’s first Polar and Ocean Museum

Sagar Bhavan:

• Area: 1,772 sq. m | Cost: ?13 crore
• Features:
  • Two -30°C ice core laboratories
  • +4°C storage units for biological and sediment samples
  • Class 1000 clean room for trace metal and isotope studies

Significance for India

• Strengthens India’s strategic presence in polar regions.
• Enhances research capacity in ocean and climate sciences.
• Enables India to fulfill international obligations under polar treaties.
• Promotes science diplomacy and public outreach through the upcoming museum.

Background:

Weather balloons, crucial for upper atmospheric observations, are facing reduced deployment in the United States due to recent budget cuts. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has significantly scaled back balloon launches since March 2025 following a 25% budget reduction. This has raised global concerns among meteorologists over the potential decline in forecast accuracy.

What are Weather Balloons?

• Inventor: Léon Teisserenc de Bort (France), first launched them in 1896; discovered the tropopause and stratosphere.
• Composition: Latex balloons filled with helium or hydrogen.
• Altitude: Can ascend up to 1,15,000 feet (35 km) in approximately 2 hours.
• Instrument Carried: Radiosonde – a small device suspended ~66 feet below the balloon that transmits real-time atmospheric data (temperature, pressure, humidity, wind) via radio signals.
• Technology: Modern radiosondes are lightweight, GPS-enabled, and energy-efficient.

Historical Context:

• Initial upper-air measurements in the 18th century used kites with meteorographs.
• Weather balloons replaced kites due to higher altitude capability and improved data reliability.
• The introduction of radiosondes in the 1930s revolutionized weather forecasting by enabling real-time data transmission.

Importance of Upper Air Observations

• Upper atmosphere (>5,000 feet) plays a vital role in generating surface-level weather conditions like rain, storms, and drought.
• Weather balloons help bridge the data gap between surface stations and satellites by offering vertical atmospheric profiles.
• Twice-daily launches at 0000 UTC and 1200 UTC (~5:30 AM and 5:30 PM IST) are globally coordinated at over 900 stations, including 56 in India.

India’s Scenario

• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) conducts routine balloon launches for weather forecasting.
• The National Balloon Facility (NBF) in Hyderabad, jointly managed by ISRO and TIFR, supports high-altitude atmospheric research.

Impact of Reduced Launches

• NOAA’s scaling down has sparked fears of reduced forecast accuracy globally.
• A similar move by Russia in 2015 led to a measurable decline in forecast quality across Europe, highlighting the critical role radiosondes play.
• NOAA plans to replace some balloon data with AI-powered alternatives developed by private firms to reduce costs.

Why Weather Balloons Still Matter in the Satellite Era

• Satellites provide large-scale imagery but lack the granularity of vertical atmospheric data.
• Weather balloons offer crucial insights into lower- and mid-atmospheric layers where storms and climate dynamics form.
• Radiosonde data is essential for calibrating satellite measurements, ensuring reliability in climate modeling and forecasting systems.

In News:

Recently, India successfully hosted the Second Blue Talks in New Delhi, organised by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) in collaboration with the Embassies of France and Costa Rica. This high-level consultation platform aims to contribute to the upcoming 3rd United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) scheduled from June 9–13, 2025 in Nice, France.

About Blue Talks

• Purpose: A multilateral platform for dialogue among governments, scientists, civil society, and stakeholders to promote the sustainable use of ocean resources and accelerate progress on Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 – Life Below Water.
• Key Objectives:
  • Promote marine sustainability, research, and education.
  • Facilitate global scientific cooperation on ocean-related challenges.
  • Share best practices and strategic knowledge tools.
  • Strengthen consensus and policy alignment in the lead-up to UNOC3.
• Thematic Focus Areas of 2nd Blue Talks:
  • Conservation and Restoration of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems.
  • Scientific Cooperation, Marine Technology, and Ocean Literacy.
  • Reduction of Marine Pollution from land and sea-based sources.
  • Interlinkages among Oceans, Climate, and Biodiversity.

Highlights of the Event:

• White Paper Released: Transforming India’s Blue Economy: Investment, Innovation, and Sustainable Growth.
• Aim: To align government action, mobilize investments, and promote sustainable ocean development.
• Notable Themes:
  • Mapping of marine resources.
  • Promotion of offshore wind and deep-sea exploration.
  • Technology and data-sharing gaps.
  • Women-led seaweed farming, smart ports, and green ship recycling as success models.

About the 3rd United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3)

Feature                                          Details

Host Countries                         France and Costa Rica

Venue & Dates                         Nice, France; June 9–13, 2025

Organiser                                    United Nations

Theme                                           “Accelerating action and mobilizing all actors to conserve and

                                                 sustainably use the ocean.”

Goal                                                  Strengthen global efforts under SDG 14

Key Outcome                             Nice Ocean Action Plan – a non-binding but politically influential declaration.

Focus Areas                                Marine conservation, pollution reduction, global partnerships, and

                                                 BBNJ ratification.

UN Ocean Conference Series

• 1st UNOC (2017): New York, USA – Raised awareness and voluntary commitments.
• 2nd UNOC (2022): Lisbon, Portugal – Focused on innovation and science-driven approaches.
• 3rd UNOC (2025): Nice, France – Aims to intensify action and collaboration.

India’s Blue Economy Vision

• India's Blue Economy is a critical pillar of the Viksit Bharat 2047 vision.
• MoES is the nodal agency for national ocean governance.
• The white paper integrates efforts from 25 ministries and all coastal states/UTs.
• Builds on India’s G20 Presidency and Chennai High-Level Principles for a Sustainable and Resilient Blue Economy.

In News:

Japan’s Sakurajima volcano, located in Kagoshima Prefecture on the southern island of Kyushu, recently erupted sending a dense ash plume 3,000 metres into the sky. The eruption originated from the Minamidake summit crater and was accompanied by a Level 3 volcanic alert, advising people to stay away from the vicinity.

Key Features of Sakurajima Volcano:

• Type: Stratovolcano (composite volcano)
• Geological Setting: Situated on a convergent plate boundary, formed from subduction-related volcanic activity.
• Structure: Comprises North Peak and South Peak, and lies on the southwestern rim of the Aira Caldera.
• Historical Significance: Was an island until the 1914 eruption, which connected it to the ?sumi Peninsula.
• Frequent Activity: One of Japan's most active volcanoes, experiencing daily minor eruptions and emitting continuous volcanic smoke.

Volcanic Characteristics:

• Lava Type:Andesitic – high in gas content and viscosity, leading to explosive eruptions.
• Hazards: Produces ash fall, pyroclastic flows, volcanic bombs, and toxic gases.
• Proximity to Populated Areas: Only 4 km from Kagoshima City, making it a high-risk volcano with strict monitoring by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).

Impact and Preparedness:

• No injuries or major damages have been reported as of now.
• Ash fall warnings were issued for Kagoshima, Kumamoto, and Miyazaki prefectures.
• The eruption highlights Japan’s robust disaster preparedness and early warning systems, essential due to the country's location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.

In News:

Scientists from the University of Oxford have proposed a new method to monitor volcanic eruptions by using the seismic phenomenon of shear-wave splitting, demonstrated at Mount Ontake in Japan.

What is Shear-Wave Splitting?

• Shear-wave splitting is a seismic phenomenon where shear (S) waves split into two components that travel at different speeds based on their polarisation.
• Occurs when waves pass through aligned cracks or fractures in subsurface rocks.
• Movement of magma and volcanic fluids changes stress conditions, causing rock cracks to open or close.
• These changes influence the speed and direction of shear waves.
• Increased shear-wave splitting can indicate rising internal pressure, serving as a potential early warning for volcanic eruptions.

Mount Ontake – Key Facts

• Type: Active stratovolcano
• Location: Honsh? Island, Central Japan, near Tokyo
• Status: Japan’s second-highest volcano
• Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire
• Major Eruption:
  • Year: 2014
  • Type: Phreatic eruption (steam-driven)
  • Casualties: 60+ people, mainly hikers
  • Notably occurred without significant seismic warning
• Phreatic Eruptions:
  • Caused by steam pressure from heated underground water
  • Do not involve new magma
  • Difficult to predict using conventional methods

In News:

A recent study by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) has challenged the conventional understanding of monsoon dynamics by highlighting the critical role of cloud band strength in determining the movement and intensity of rainfall during the Indian monsoon season.

Key Findings of the Study:

• Strength Determines Propagation: Only strong equatorial cloud bands are capable of northward movement, initiating wet spells over the Indian subcontinent. Weak cloud bands fail to propagate, contradicting earlier models that assumed uniform northward movement.
• Role of BSISO: The Boreal Summer Intraseasonal Oscillation (BSISO) governs alternating wet and dry spells by transporting cloud bands from the equator to India. The duration and intensity of wet spells are influenced by the size and strength of these cloud bands.
• Air-Sea Interaction: Interaction between the equatorial Indian Ocean’s sea surface and atmosphere significantly influences moisture buildup and wind strength. A stronger ocean-atmosphere coupling enhances moisture transport, intensifying the monsoon.
• Impact of Climate Change:
  • Warmer atmosphere → Increased background moisture.
  • Future wet spells may see 42%–63% more rainfall over India and adjoining seas.
• Improving Forecast Models: These insights will enhance the accuracy of seasonal and sub-seasonal monsoon prediction models, crucial for agriculture and disaster preparedness.

Understanding BSISO (Boreal Summer Intraseasonal Oscillation)

• A dominant monsoon variability pattern active from June to September.
• Modulates ‘active’ (rainy) and ‘break’ (dry) phases of the monsoon.
• Moves cloud activity and convection from the Indian Ocean towards the Western Pacific.
• ENSO link:
  • La Niña enhances BSISO propagation → stronger monsoon.
  • El Niño suppresses it → weaker monsoon.

Key Facts about the Indian Monsoon

Aspect                                     Details

Definition                                “Monsoon” comes from Arabic mausim meaning season.

Southwest Monsoon        June–September; moist winds from Indian Ocean bring ~80% of India’s

                                              annual rainfall.

Northeast Monsoon          October–December; brings rain to Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra Pradesh.

Key Drivers                              ITCZ shift, Tibetan heating, Tropical Easterly Jet, Somali Jet.

Oceanic Influences           IOD (positive enhances, negative weakens monsoon), ENSO (El Niño

                                             weakens,La Niña strengthens monsoon).

Monsoon Importance     Critical for agriculture, water supply, economy; affects ~50% of India’s

                                             population directly.

In News:

The Telangana Socio-Economic Outlook 2025 highlights a concerning rise in night-time temperatures in Hyderabad, attributed to the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. This growing urban microclimatic issue has critical public health and environmental implications.

What is Urban Heat Island (UHI)?

• Definition: UHI is a climatic phenomenon where urban areas record significantly higher temperatures than surrounding rural or peri-urban regions, particularly at night.
• Cause: Result of urbanization and human activities that alter land surfaces and trap heat.

Key Factors Contributing to UHI

• Reduced green cover: Shrinking vegetation limits natural cooling via shade and evapotranspiration.
• High density of concrete structures: Buildings and roads absorb solar radiation during the day and release heat slowly at night.
• Urban layout: Tall buildings and narrow streets trap warm air, reducing air circulation.
• Anthropogenic heat: Emissions from vehicles, air conditioners, and industries contribute to localized warming.
• Surface characteristics: Dark tarred roads absorb more heat and release it at night, worsening night-time UHI.

Hyderabad Case Study: Telangana Socio-Economic Outlook 2025

• Temperature Difference:
  • Night-time: Core city is 1.9°C warmer than surrounding peri-urban and outer zones.
  • Daytime: Interestingly, the core is 0.7°C cooler due to shade from tall buildings.
• Peak UHI Season: March to August.
• Most Affected Zones: High-rise, concrete-dense city centers with low vegetation.

Health Impacts of UHI

According to medical experts:

• Physical Effects:
  • Heat exhaustion & heat strokes
  • Dehydration, skin issues
  • Cardiovascular and kidney stress
• Vulnerable Groups: Elderly, children, and those with pre-existing conditions.
• Biological Mechanism: Prolonged exposure increases pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to immune suppression and chronic fatigue.
• Mental Health: UHI contributes to sleep disturbances, psychological stress, and anxiety.

Government Response

• Clean and Green Energy Policy 2025: Telangana aims to promote cooler, greener cities.
• Recommended Actions:
  • Interdisciplinary collaboration among urban planners, healthcare professionals, and community experts.
  • Urban design incorporating green infrastructure and heat-resilient materials.

In News:

• Volcanic ice caves beneath Mount Erebus host thriving microbial life, offering insights into extremophile survival and potential life on alien planets.

About Mount Erebus:

• Location: Ross Island, Antarctica, in the Ross Sea.
• Type:Glaciated intraplate stratovolcano; part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
• Altitude:3,794 meters (12,448 feet) above sea level.
• Rank:Second tallest volcano in Antarctica (after Mount Sidley).
• Discovered: In 1841 by British explorer Sir James Clark Ross.
• Name Origin: Named after Ross’s ship, HMS Erebus.

Volcanic Activity:

• Southernmost active volcano on Earth.
• Continuously active since 1972.
• Eruptions are Strombolian in nature — small, explosive, with lava bombs ejected onto crater rim.
• Contains a persistent lava lake with alkalic lava, typical of rift volcanoes.

Proximity to Human Activity:

• Near McMurdo Station, the largest Antarctic research base, just ~40 km away.

Scientific Significance:

• The microbial ecosystems in volcanic ice caves could help understand:
  • Life in extreme environments
  • Astrobiological prospects on Mars or Europa

In News:

Recent geological studies have found that the hilly region around the Zagros Mountains in northern Iraq is slowly sinking into the Earth, a process attributed to ancient tectonic dynamics. This discovery has implications for earthquake prediction and geothermal energy potential.

Zagros Mountains

• Location: Stretches ~1,500 km from eastern Turkey and northern Iraq across the Iranian Plateau to the Strait of Hormuz.
• Highest Peak: Mount Dena (4,409 m / 14,465 ft).
• Geological Composition: Primarily limestone and shale from the Mesozoic Era and Paleogene Period.
• Climate: Semi-arid temperate – cold winters and dry, arid summers.
• Vegetation: Dominated by oak and pistachio trees with steppe vegetation.

Geological Process Behind Iraq’s Sinking

• The Zagros region is influenced by the tectonic collision between the Arabian and Eurasian Plates.
• A sinking oceanic slab, part of the ancient Neotethys Ocean floor (over 66 million years old), is pulling the region down.
• This slab is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate, a process occurring over tens of millions of years, making it imperceptible in human timescales.

Research Insights

• The studyused rock records, sediment analysis, and deep-earth imaging to understand the tectonic architecture of the region.
• The findings explain why the depressions around the Zagros Mountains are deeper than the current topography would suggest.

Significance of the Study

• Helps develop precise geological models critical for:
  • Earthquake prediction – by understanding fault depths and configurations.
  • Geothermal energy exploration – estimating areas with high geothermal gradients.
• Especially relevant in a region prone to seismic activity (e.g., 2023 Turkey-Syria earthquakes).

In News:

On February 12, 2025, Mount Etna, Europe's tallest and most active volcano, erupted once again, spewing lava flows and dense ash clouds into the atmosphere. The event drew attention not just due to its visual spectacle, but also because of the geological, environmental, and socio-economic implications it carries.

About Mount Etna

• Location: Eastern coast of Sicily, Italy — the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.
• Type:Active stratovolcano, known for frequent eruptions.
• Height & Size: Highest peak south of the Alps and tallest active volcano in Europe; rises over 3,300 meters and covers 1,190 sq. km with a basal circumference of 140 km.
• Tectonic Setting: Lies above the convergent boundary of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates, making it a hotspot for seismic and volcanic activity.
• Eruption History: Recorded to have erupted over 200 times since 1500 BCE, with persistent volcanic activity.
• UNESCO Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013 for its exceptional geological features, cultural relevance, and continuous scientific monitoring.
• Decade Volcano Status: Designated a Decade Volcano by the United Nations due to its proximity to densely populated areas, including the city of Catania, and the potential risk it poses, warranting special scientific attention.

In News:

The Fulani, one of Africa’s largest and most dispersed ethnic communities, trace their ancestry to the ‘Green Sahara’ period (12,000–5,000 years ago), according to recent genetic and anthropological research. This period, when the Sahara was a fertile, habitable landscape, marks the early development of African pastoralism.

The Fulani population is estimated at 40 million, spread across West and Central Africa, from Senegal and Guinea in the west to Lake Chad in the east. They are particularly concentrated in Nigeria, Mali, Guinea, Senegal, and Niger, and inhabit the Sahel-Savannah belt, straddling arid and semi-arid regions.

Nomadic Lifestyle and Social Structure

Traditionally known for their nomadic pastoralism, the Fulani have maintained a unique socio-cultural identity despite centuries of migration and contact with other African populations. Their society is internally diverse, divided into three main groups:

• Makiyaya: Nomadic herders
• FulaninSoro: Town dwellers
• Bararo: Forest dwellers, with strong ties to ancestral rituals and nature-based belief systems

Fulani communities are largely egalitarian, with a deep emphasis on kinship, family structure, and communal responsibility. Polygamy is widely practiced, and marriage ceremonies are elaborate, often involving intricate rituals and festive celebrations.

Women’s Role and Cultural Expression

Fulani women are recognized for their weaving, artisanal craftsmanship, and particularly their hairstyles, which are often elaborately styled and adorned with beads and cowrie shells—symbols of both identity and aesthetic tradition.

Linguistic and Religious Identity

The Fulani speak Fula (also called Fulfulde or Pulaar), a language belonging to the Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Though largely Muslim, many retain spiritual connections with nature-based traditions, particularly among the Bararo groups.

Genetic Heritage and Historical Significance

A recent multinational study led by Uppsala University and Charles University analyzed biological and anthropological data from 460 Fulani individuals across 18 locations in seven African countries. It confirmed a complex genetic history, shaped by:

• Ancient North African ancestry, particularly linked to populations akin to modern-day Berbers of Morocco
• Historical interactions with West, Central, and East African communities
• A shared ancestral genetic component, likely rooted in early pastoral communities of the Green Sahara era

The research underscores that despite their high mobility and limited archaeological footprint, the Fulani have preserved a distinct genetic and cultural identity for millennia.

In News:

A magnitude 7.6 earthquake recently struck the Caribbean Sea southwest of the Cayman Islands, as reported by the U.S. Geological Survey. While no tsunami warning was issued, tremors were felt across the region, and assessments of damage are ongoing.

Geographical and Geopolitical Overview

• The Cayman Islands is a British Overseas Territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, south of Cuba and northwest of Jamaica.
• It comprises three islands:
  • Grand Cayman (largest and most populous)
  • Cayman Brac
  • Little Cayman
• The islands are part of the Cayman Ridge, an underwater mountain range, with the islands themselves being the emergent peaks of this ridgeline.
• Area: Only 264 sq. km
• Capital: George Town, located on Grand Cayman
• Official Language: English
• Currency: Cayman Islands Dollar (KYD)
• Ethnic Composition:
  • Afro-European: 40%
  • African: 20%
  • European: 20%
  • Other: 20%

Seismic and Climatic Features

• The islands are near the Cayman Trench, a deep subduction zone formed by the interaction between the North American and Caribbean Plates.
• Although major earthquakes are rare, the region is seismically active, and moderate to high seismic events are possible, such as the recent 7.6 magnitude quake.
• Climate: Tropical marine with a distinct wet and dry season; vulnerable to hurricanes, especially during the Atlantic hurricane season (June–November).

Ecological Significance

• Known for crystal-clear waters, coral reefs, and white sand beaches, the Cayman Islands are a global hub for marine biodiversity.
• Key ecological features include:
  • Coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves
  • Famous dive sites like the Great Blue Hole and Bloody Bay Wall
• Terrestrial biodiversity is limited due to the islands’ small limestone-based land area, but they are home to endemic species such as the Grand Cayman Blue Iguana, which has recovered from critical endangerment through conservation efforts.

Economic Importance: A Global Financial Hub

• The Cayman Islands is renowned as a major offshore financial center and global tax haven.
• Zero taxation: No corporate, income, or capital gains tax
• Home to:
  • Offshore banks
  • Hedge funds
  • Multinational corporations
• The islands offer a favorable regulatory environment and strict financial confidentiality laws, although they now comply with international transparency norms.

In News:

In a significant legal and environmental development, Mount Taranaki—officially now known by its M?ori name Taranaki Maunga—has been granted legal personhood by the government of New Zealand.

This move marks it as the third natural feature in the country to receive such status, following the Te Urewera National Park (2014) and the Whanganui River (2017).

This recognition reflects an increasing global trend toward acknowledging the intrinsic rights of natural entities and respecting the spiritual beliefs of indigenous communities.

About Taranaki Maunga

• Location: Situated in Egmont National Park, North Island, New Zealand.
• Dual Naming: Historically known as Mount Egmont, it is now officially referred to by its indigenous name, Taranaki Maunga, as part of decolonization and cultural revival efforts.
• Elevation: Stands at 8,261 feet, making it the second-highest peak in the North Island of New Zealand.
• Geological Type: It is a stratovolcano (composite cone) with a nearly perfect symmetrical shape—one of the most symmetrical volcanic cones in the world.
• Formation: Formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Australian Plate. The magma source lies deeper than that of the Taupo Volcanic Zone volcanoes.
• Topography: Surrounded by a circular ring plain formed from lahars (volcanic mudflows) and landslides.
• Status: A snow-capped dormant volcano and culturally revered natural landmark.
• Cultural Significance: The M?ori, indigenous people of New Zealand, regard Taranaki Maunga as a sacred ancestor, embedding it deeply in their oral traditions and spirituality.

Legal Personhood and Its Significance

Granting legal personhood to Taranaki Maunga means it now holds rights, duties, and liabilities akin to a legal human being, and its interests will be represented by appointed guardians—often including indigenous representatives.

This legal framework recognizes:

• The spiritual and cultural relationship that the M?ori have with the mountain.
• The need to protect natural ecosystems not merely for utility but as living entities deserving of rights and dignity.

Comparative Insights: India’s Legal Approach to Natural Entities

India has witnessed similar developments:

• Uttarakhand High Court (2017–18): Granted legal personhood to the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, along with the Gangotri and Yamunotri glaciers. However, the Supreme Court later stayed this ruling.
• Punjab and Haryana High Court (2020): Recognized Sukhna Lake (Chandigarh) as a living entity for environmental protection.
• These decisions stem from the Doctrine of Parens Patriae, which allows the state to act as a guardian for those who cannot protect themselves—extending this protection to natural entities such as rivers, forests, and wildlife.

In News:

Recently, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (UNESCO-IOC) announced the signature of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) enabling the creation of the Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM).

What is the Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM)?

• It is a collaborative governance initiative aimed at the sustainable management of marine resources in the Caribbean and North Brazil Shelf region.
• Conceived under the 10-year CLME+ Strategic Action Programme (SAP)—endorsed in 2014—it represents a transformative step toward integrated ocean governance.

Key Objectives of OCM:

• Promote sustainable fisheries
• Advance ecosystem restoration and marine spatial planning
• Establish marine protected areas (MPAs)
• Encourage pollution control and blue carbon development
• Foster cross-country and cross-institutional cooperation

It builds on lessons from earlier efforts like the Pacific Islands Regional Ocean Policy (PIROP), aiming to avoid past pitfalls such as vague targets, lack of integration, and funding shortfalls.

Significance of the Caribbean and North Brazil Shelf Region:

• Coral reefs and fisheries contribute ~$610 million annually to local economies
• The North Brazil Shelf is home to over 500 fish species
• Acts as a natural barrier against storms, crucial for climate resilience

Blue Carbon and Climate Action:

The OCM promotes blue carbon projects that utilize coastal ecosystems (like mangroves and seagrasses) for carbon storage, enhancing climate resilience and providing livelihoods to local communities.

Funding Details:

• $15 million from Global Environment Facility (GEF) via the UNDP/GEF PROCARIBE+ Project (2024–2028)
• Additional $126.02 million in co-financing mobilized
• However, the funding is modest compared to initiatives like the Global Fund for Coral Reefs (targeting $3 billion by 2030), raising concerns about OCM's long-term financial sustainability.

Role of IOC-UNESCO:

Established in 1961, the IOC of UNESCO promotes international cooperation in ocean science and policy. Key functions include:

• Marine scientific research (climate, biodiversity, sustainability)
• Tsunami warning systems
• Oceanographic data collection and dissemination
• Leading the UN Ocean Decade (2021–2030) for global marine conservation

Why OCM Matters:

• Addresses the Ocean–Climate–Biodiversity nexus
• Aims to ensure equitable access to marine resources
• Prioritizes local and vulnerable communities
• Integrates traditional knowledge with scientific research for culturally inclusive conservation

In News:

After a four-year hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Galwan Valley clash, India and China have agreed to resume the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra in June 2025, along with other confidence-building measures.

This decision aligns with the 75th anniversary of India-China diplomatic relations, symbolizing an attempt to stabilize and recalibrate bilateral ties through people-centric initiatives.

Key Highlights:

Key announcements include:

• Resumption of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra
• Restoration of direct air services
• Visa issuance for journalists and think tanks
• Hydrological data sharing and cooperation on trans-border rivers
• Enhanced people-to-people exchanges and academic/media dialogues

About the Yatra

• The Yatra involves a pilgrimage to Mount Kailash and Lake Mansarovar in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (Xizang).
• Organised by India’s Ministry of External Affairs between June–September, via two routes:
  • Lipulekh Pass (Uttarakhand)
  • Nathu La Pass (Sikkim)
• Supported by the state governments of Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Delhi, and coordinated with the Indo-Tibetan Border Police.
• Open only to Indian citizens with valid passports; no financial subsidy is provided by the Government of India.

Geographical and Religious Significance:

• Mount Kailash, located in the Kailash Range (Transhimalaya), is the source of four major rivers: Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Indus, and Karnali.
• Revered across religions:
  • Hindus consider it the abode of Lord Shiva; Mansarovar is one of the 51 Shaktipeeths.
  • Buddhists and Tibetans regard it as the ‘Stairway to Heaven’.
  • Jains believe Rishabhanatha attained enlightenment here—referred to as Ashtapada.

Diplomatic Interpretations and Differences

• India’s Position: Emphasized a step-by-step, cautious approach focusing on rebuilding trust and resolving contentious issues, particularly the border situation. India sought policy predictability and transparency in trade, and reaffirmed the importance of mutual respect and interests.
• China’s Position: Took a more optimistic and strategic stance, stressing the need to avoid "mutual suspicion" and to advance cooperation based on long-term national interests. It emphasized early action, including the swift resumption of the Yatra and flights.

Ongoing Concerns in Bilateral Relations

• Unresolved Border Disputes:
  • Tensions persist along the Line of Actual Control (LAC)—notably in Galwan (2020) and Tawang (2022).
  • India and China have made limited progress in resolving issues in Depsang and Demchok.
• Trade Imbalance:
  • Bilateral trade in 2023–24 stood at USD 118.4 billion, with India facing a trade deficit of USD 85 billion.
  • India raised concerns on market access and non-tariff barriers.
• China-Pakistan Axis:
  • The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) runs through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, violating India’s territorial sovereignty.
  • China’s support for Pakistan in multilateral forums remains a thorn in bilateral ties.
• China’s Regional Assertiveness:
  • Expanding influence in South Asia and the Indian Ocean through the String of Pearls, strategic presence in Maldives, Sri Lanka, and strong claims in the South China Sea, contribute to regional unease.

Significance of the Current Diplomatic Thaw

• The resumption of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra reflects a symbolic softening in ties, emphasizing religious diplomacy and people-to-people connection.
• Restoration of direct flights and journalistic presence can aid in reducing mistrust.
• Hydrological cooperation, particularly over the Brahmaputra River, is essential for India’s water security, especially with China constructing mega-dams upstream.

Way Forward

• Rebuild Trust Through Engagement: Maintain diplomatic dialogues via platforms like BRICS, SCO, and G20, while holding to core national interests.
• Resolve Border Disputes: Pursue early finalization of the LAC through confidence-building agreements and military disengagement.
• Diversify Economic Strategy: Reduce dependency on Chinese imports by strengthening domestic manufacturing and regional trade alternatives.
• Enhance Cultural Diplomacy: Use platforms like the Kailash Yatra to foster mutual understanding rooted in shared civilizational values.
• Promote Transparency and Reciprocity: Especially in media, trade, and information sharing, to ensure balanced bilateral engagement.

In News:

The Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal-Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (PKC-ERCP), part of the National Interlinking of Rivers (ILR) programme, aims to address water scarcity in 23 districts of Rajasthan, potentially benefiting 3.45 crore people. However, it has raised serious concerns over its ecological impact, particularly on the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve.

About the PKC-ERCP Project:

Aspect                     Details

Objective                To channel surplus water from the Chambal basin for irrigation, drinking, and industrial use in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

Estimated Cost       ?72,000 crore (90% funded by the Central Government)

Water Allocation      4,100 MCM to Rajasthan and 3,000 MCM to Madhya Pradesh

Rivers Involved          Chambal, Parbati, Kalisindh, Banas, and tributaries

Major Structure        39 m high, 1.6 km long dam across the Banas River, a Chambal tributary, near Doongri village, ~30 km from Sawai Madhopur

Submergence and Environmental Concerns:

• Total Submergence: ~408.86 sq km in Rajasthan.
• Reservoir Impact: 227 sq km to be submerged under the proposed dam across Banas River.
• Impact on Tiger Reserve:
  • 37.03 sq km of the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve (total area: 1,133 sq km) to be submerged.
  • This includes parts of Ranthambore National Park (392 sq km) and Keladevi Wildlife Sanctuary (674 sq km).
  • May fragment the reserve, disrupting wildlife corridors and tiger movement.
• Ranthambore’s Significance:
  • Home to ~57 tigers, it is one of India’s most prominent conservation areas.
  • Situated at the Aravalli-Vindhya junction, with rich biodiversity, including leopards, hyenas, sloth bears, and iconic flora like Dhok trees.
  • Encompasses the UNESCO-listed Ranthambore Fort and the Great Boundary Fault.

Arguments For the Project:

• Addresses chronic water scarcity in eastern Rajasthan.
• Promotes agricultural productivity, drinking water security, and industrial development.
• Aims to optimize water use by diverting surplus flows.

Arguments Against the Project:

• Biodiversity loss due to habitat submergence and reserve fragmentation.
• Risks to tiger conservation efforts.
• Potential violation of environmental safeguards under the Wildlife Protection Act and Forest Conservation norms.

Long-term ecological costs may outweigh short-term developmental gains.

In News:

India is set to deploy its first human-operated deep-sea submersible as part of the Deep Ocean Mission (DOM), marking a significant leap in the country’s marine research and technological capability.

Key Highlights:

• Submersible Deployment (2024):
  • India will operate its first human submersible at a depth of 500 meters this year.
  • The goal is to reach a depth of 6,000 meters by 2025.
  • The project aligns with the timelines of Gaganyaan, India’s first human space mission—showcasing parallel progress in marine and space technology.
• Indigenous Technology:
  • The mission is powered by 100% indigenous technology, underlining India’s growing self-reliance in high-end scientific infrastructure.

About Deep Ocean Mission (DOM):

• Launched: 2021
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
• Budget: ?4,077 crore over five years
• Framework: One of nine key missions under PM-STIAC (Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council)

Core Objectives:

• Develop deep-sea technologies, including a manned submersible for ocean exploration.
• Explore and harness ocean resources such as: Polymetallic nodules, Hydrothermal sulphides & Rare earth metals
• Study marine biodiversity for sustainable fisheries and conservation.
• Support India’s blue economy through innovation and research.
• Monitor ocean climate change and develop advisory services.
• Promote marine biology and biotechnology via dedicated marine research stations.
• Harvest renewable energy and freshwater from ocean sources.

Key Components and Technologies:

Matsya6000 Submersible:

• India’s first manned deep-sea vehicle.
• Designed to reach 6,000 meters depth.
• Crew Capacity: Three members
• Developed by: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai
• Structure: Made of titanium alloy, withstanding 6,000 bar pressure
• Equipped with: Scientific sensors, tools for sampling, viewports, propellers, and acoustic communication systems.
• Combines capabilities of ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) and AUVs (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles).

Varaha Deep-Ocean Mining System:

• Developed by NIOT
• Successfully conducted trials at 5,270 meters
• Key to India’s future in deep-sea mining of critical minerals

Strategic Importance:

• Scientific Advancement: DOM places India among a select group of nations (USA, Russia, China, France, Japan) with human-crewed deep-ocean exploration capacity.
• Economic Potential: Unlocks access to underwater mineral wealth, critical for electronics, defense, and energy sectors.
• Environmental Sustainability: Supports marine biodiversity conservation and promotes sustainable use of oceanic resources.
• Geopolitical Significance: Enhances India’s presence and influence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• Technological Leap: Strengthens India’s capabilities in underwater robotics, materials engineering, and ocean sciences.

In News:

In a controversial move, President Donald Trump (2025) signed an executive order to rename Denali (North America’s highest peak) back to Mount McKinley, and also proposed renaming the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of America, citing the need to "honor American greatness."

About Denali / Mount McKinley:

Feature                              Description

Location                           Alaska Range, South-Central Alaska, USA

Height                              20,310 feet (6,190 meters) – Highest in North America

Geology                            Giant granite block uplifted by tectonic activity ~60 million years ago

Glaciers                            Feeds major glaciers: Kahiltna, Muldrow, Peters, Ruth, Traleika

Tectonics                          Lies along the Denali Fault, a major right-lateral strike-slip fault

National Park                  Forms the core of Denali National Park and Preserve

Historical Background of the Name:

• Original Name: Denali, meaning “The High One” in the Athabascan language of the Koyukon people.
• 1897: Renamed Mount McKinley by a gold prospector in honor of President William McKinley (1897–1901).
• 1917: Official federal recognition with the creation of Mount McKinley National Park.
• 1980: Park renamed Denali National Park and Preserve; mountain's name remained McKinley federally.
• 2015: Obama administration officially renamed the peak Denali through the U.S. Department of the Interior.
• 2025: Trump issued executive order to revert the name to Mount McKinley, stating McKinley “deserves” the honor.

Rationale Behind Trump’s Renaming Order:

• Claims it honors McKinley’s legacy: economic growth, leadership in Spanish-American War, and tariff reforms.
• Declares Obama’s 2015 decision an “affront” to American heritage.
• Connects the move to his broader theme of “Restoring Names that Honor American Greatness.”

Opposition & Cultural Sensitivity:

• Alaska’s bipartisan leadership, including Senators Lisa Murkowski (R) and Scott Kawasaki (D), oppose the move.
• Indigenous groups maintain that Denali is the rightful and culturally authentic name.
• Critics argue it undermines native heritage and local identity.

Renaming the Gulf of Mexico to “Gulf of America”:

• Also part of Trump’s 2025 executive order.
• Geographic Facts:
  • Borders the US, Mexico, and Cuba.
  • Crucial to the US energy sector:
    • 14% of US crude oil
    • 5% of US natural gas
    • 48% of refining capacity
• International Validity: The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) allows local name usage but retains “Gulf of Mexico” in global records.
• Not binding on Mexico or Cuba.

International & Historical Parallels in Naming Disputes:

• Persian Gulf vs. Arabian Gulf (Iran vs. Arab states)
• Sea of Japan vs. East Sea (Japan vs. South Korea)
• South China Sea: Multiple nations claim different names and areas.

About the Denali Fault:

• Major strike-slip fault running through Alaska.
• Responsible for extensive tectonic movement and uplift of Denali.
• Evidence of horizontal displacement (~483 km) over millions of years.
• Marked the final suturing of tectonic plates in North American geological history.

In News:

Indonesia’s Mount Ibu erupted 1,000 times this month.

Overview:

• Location: Mount Ibu, Halmahera Island, North Maluku province, Indonesia.
• Volcano Type: Stratovolcano (composite volcano) – steep-sided, conical structure formed by successive layers of lava, ash, and pyroclastic material.
• Tectonic Setting: Located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a major area of subduction zones with high volcanic and seismic activity.

Volcanic Context – Indonesia:

• Pacific Ring of Fire: Indonesia's location makes it one of the most volcanically active regions globally.
• Other Recent Eruptions:
  • Mount Lewotobi Laki-Laki (twin-peaked volcano)
  • Mount Ruang
  • Both have shown heightened activity, triggering mass evacuations.

In News:

India is now the seventh-largest coffee producer globally with exports reaching $1.29 billion in FY 2023-24, almost double the $719.42 million in 2020-21.

Historical Background

• Origin: Coffee was introduced to India in the 17th century by Baba Budan, a Sufi saint, who brought seven Mocha beans from Yemen and planted them in Baba Budan Giri hills, Karnataka.
• This act laid the foundation for India’s coffee cultivation, which has since evolved into a robust agro-industry.

India’s Global Coffee Status

• 7th largest coffee producer globally (FY 2023–24).
• Exports: Reached $1.29 billion in FY 2023–24, nearly double the $719.42 million in FY 2020–21.
• Major export destinations: Italy, Belgium, Russia.
• Export Share: Over 70% of India's coffee is exported, mostly in unroasted (green bean) form.

Types of Coffee Cultivated

• Arabica: Mild flavor, higher market value.
• Robusta: Strong flavor, more robust; often used in instant coffee.
• India's production: Around 75% is a mix of Arabica and Robusta.

Geographical Distribution

• Major Coffee-Growing Regions:
  • Karnataka: Leads with over 70% of national production (~248,020 MT in 2022–23).
  • Kerala and Tamil Nadu follow.
  • Other contributors: Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and parts of Northeast India

• Agro-climatic Conditions:
  • Altitude: 600–1600 meters
  • Temperature: 15°C–28°C
  • Rainfall: 150–250 cm annually
  • Soil: Well-drained, loamy, rich in humus and minerals

Economic & Environmental Significance

• Coffee is largely grown in the Western and Eastern Ghats, biodiversity-rich zones with shade-grown plantations.
• These plantations:
  • Conserve ecology and biodiversity
  • Support sustainable agriculture
  • Contribute to rural livelihoods

Domestic Trends

• Rising café culture, urbanization, and higher disposable incomes have led to increased coffee consumption.
• Domestic consumption rose from 84,000 tonnes (2012) to 91,000 tonnes (2023).
• Preference for coffee over tea is growing, especially in urban and semi-urban India.

Government Initiatives

• Coffee Board of India initiatives under the Integrated Coffee Development Project (ICDP) aim to:
  • Enhance yields
  • Expand to non-traditional areas
  • Promote sustainable practices
• Araku Valley Model:
  • Involves 150,000 tribal families
  • 20% increase in production
  • Backed by Girijan Co-operative Corporation (GCC) and Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA)
  • Aligned with Aatmanirbhar Bharat and rural empowerment

Current Challenges and Future Outlook

• Challenges: Climate change impacts, pest attacks, price volatility in global markets.
• Opportunities:
  • Rising global demand for value-added products (roasted & instant coffee)
  • Export incentives and improved logistics
  • Potential for agri-tourism and organic branding

Cyclone Dikeledi struck Mayotte, a French overseas territory in the Indian Ocean, located in the Mozambique Channel. The cyclone caused severe flooding and damage, following closely after Cyclone Chido, which had hit the region in December 2024.

About Mayotte:

• Comprises two islands from the Comoros archipelago: Mayotte (Grande Terre) and Pamandzi (Petite Terre).
• It is the poorest region in both France and the European Union.
• Colonized by France in 1843 and annexed along with the Comoros in 1904.
• In a 1974 referendum, while 95% of Comoros opted for independence, 63% of Mayotte voted to remain French.
• While Comoros declared independence in 1975, Mayotte continues to be governed by France.

Cyclone Chido, which struck in December 2024, was recorded as the most severe storm to hit Mayotte in 90 years.