In News:

On February 12, 2025, Mount Etna, Europe's tallest and most active volcano, erupted once again, spewing lava flows and dense ash clouds into the atmosphere. The event drew attention not just due to its visual spectacle, but also because of the geological, environmental, and socio-economic implications it carries.

About Mount Etna

• Location: Eastern coast of Sicily, Italy — the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.
• Type:Active stratovolcano, known for frequent eruptions.
• Height & Size: Highest peak south of the Alps and tallest active volcano in Europe; rises over 3,300 meters and covers 1,190 sq. km with a basal circumference of 140 km.
• Tectonic Setting: Lies above the convergent boundary of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates, making it a hotspot for seismic and volcanic activity.
• Eruption History: Recorded to have erupted over 200 times since 1500 BCE, with persistent volcanic activity.
• UNESCO Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013 for its exceptional geological features, cultural relevance, and continuous scientific monitoring.
• Decade Volcano Status: Designated a Decade Volcano by the United Nations due to its proximity to densely populated areas, including the city of Catania, and the potential risk it poses, warranting special scientific attention.

In News:

The Fulani, one of Africa’s largest and most dispersed ethnic communities, trace their ancestry to the ‘Green Sahara’ period (12,000–5,000 years ago), according to recent genetic and anthropological research. This period, when the Sahara was a fertile, habitable landscape, marks the early development of African pastoralism.

The Fulani population is estimated at 40 million, spread across West and Central Africa, from Senegal and Guinea in the west to Lake Chad in the east. They are particularly concentrated in Nigeria, Mali, Guinea, Senegal, and Niger, and inhabit the Sahel-Savannah belt, straddling arid and semi-arid regions.

Nomadic Lifestyle and Social Structure

Traditionally known for their nomadic pastoralism, the Fulani have maintained a unique socio-cultural identity despite centuries of migration and contact with other African populations. Their society is internally diverse, divided into three main groups:

• Makiyaya: Nomadic herders
• FulaninSoro: Town dwellers
• Bararo: Forest dwellers, with strong ties to ancestral rituals and nature-based belief systems

Fulani communities are largely egalitarian, with a deep emphasis on kinship, family structure, and communal responsibility. Polygamy is widely practiced, and marriage ceremonies are elaborate, often involving intricate rituals and festive celebrations.

Women’s Role and Cultural Expression

Fulani women are recognized for their weaving, artisanal craftsmanship, and particularly their hairstyles, which are often elaborately styled and adorned with beads and cowrie shells—symbols of both identity and aesthetic tradition.

Linguistic and Religious Identity

The Fulani speak Fula (also called Fulfulde or Pulaar), a language belonging to the Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Though largely Muslim, many retain spiritual connections with nature-based traditions, particularly among the Bararo groups.

Genetic Heritage and Historical Significance

A recent multinational study led by Uppsala University and Charles University analyzed biological and anthropological data from 460 Fulani individuals across 18 locations in seven African countries. It confirmed a complex genetic history, shaped by:

• Ancient North African ancestry, particularly linked to populations akin to modern-day Berbers of Morocco
• Historical interactions with West, Central, and East African communities
• A shared ancestral genetic component, likely rooted in early pastoral communities of the Green Sahara era

The research underscores that despite their high mobility and limited archaeological footprint, the Fulani have preserved a distinct genetic and cultural identity for millennia.

In News:

A magnitude 7.6 earthquake recently struck the Caribbean Sea southwest of the Cayman Islands, as reported by the U.S. Geological Survey. While no tsunami warning was issued, tremors were felt across the region, and assessments of damage are ongoing.

Geographical and Geopolitical Overview

• The Cayman Islands is a British Overseas Territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, south of Cuba and northwest of Jamaica.
• It comprises three islands:
  • Grand Cayman (largest and most populous)
  • Cayman Brac
  • Little Cayman
• The islands are part of the Cayman Ridge, an underwater mountain range, with the islands themselves being the emergent peaks of this ridgeline.
• Area: Only 264 sq. km
• Capital: George Town, located on Grand Cayman
• Official Language: English
• Currency: Cayman Islands Dollar (KYD)
• Ethnic Composition:
  • Afro-European: 40%
  • African: 20%
  • European: 20%
  • Other: 20%

Seismic and Climatic Features

• The islands are near the Cayman Trench, a deep subduction zone formed by the interaction between the North American and Caribbean Plates.
• Although major earthquakes are rare, the region is seismically active, and moderate to high seismic events are possible, such as the recent 7.6 magnitude quake.
• Climate: Tropical marine with a distinct wet and dry season; vulnerable to hurricanes, especially during the Atlantic hurricane season (June–November).

Ecological Significance

• Known for crystal-clear waters, coral reefs, and white sand beaches, the Cayman Islands are a global hub for marine biodiversity.
• Key ecological features include:
  • Coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves
  • Famous dive sites like the Great Blue Hole and Bloody Bay Wall
• Terrestrial biodiversity is limited due to the islands’ small limestone-based land area, but they are home to endemic species such as the Grand Cayman Blue Iguana, which has recovered from critical endangerment through conservation efforts.

Economic Importance: A Global Financial Hub

• The Cayman Islands is renowned as a major offshore financial center and global tax haven.
• Zero taxation: No corporate, income, or capital gains tax
• Home to:
  • Offshore banks
  • Hedge funds
  • Multinational corporations
• The islands offer a favorable regulatory environment and strict financial confidentiality laws, although they now comply with international transparency norms.

In News:

In a significant legal and environmental development, Mount Taranaki—officially now known by its M?ori name Taranaki Maunga—has been granted legal personhood by the government of New Zealand.

This move marks it as the third natural feature in the country to receive such status, following the Te Urewera National Park (2014) and the Whanganui River (2017).

This recognition reflects an increasing global trend toward acknowledging the intrinsic rights of natural entities and respecting the spiritual beliefs of indigenous communities.

About Taranaki Maunga

• Location: Situated in Egmont National Park, North Island, New Zealand.
• Dual Naming: Historically known as Mount Egmont, it is now officially referred to by its indigenous name, Taranaki Maunga, as part of decolonization and cultural revival efforts.
• Elevation: Stands at 8,261 feet, making it the second-highest peak in the North Island of New Zealand.
• Geological Type: It is a stratovolcano (composite cone) with a nearly perfect symmetrical shape—one of the most symmetrical volcanic cones in the world.
• Formation: Formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Australian Plate. The magma source lies deeper than that of the Taupo Volcanic Zone volcanoes.
• Topography: Surrounded by a circular ring plain formed from lahars (volcanic mudflows) and landslides.
• Status: A snow-capped dormant volcano and culturally revered natural landmark.
• Cultural Significance: The M?ori, indigenous people of New Zealand, regard Taranaki Maunga as a sacred ancestor, embedding it deeply in their oral traditions and spirituality.

Legal Personhood and Its Significance

Granting legal personhood to Taranaki Maunga means it now holds rights, duties, and liabilities akin to a legal human being, and its interests will be represented by appointed guardians—often including indigenous representatives.

This legal framework recognizes:

• The spiritual and cultural relationship that the M?ori have with the mountain.
• The need to protect natural ecosystems not merely for utility but as living entities deserving of rights and dignity.

Comparative Insights: India’s Legal Approach to Natural Entities

India has witnessed similar developments:

• Uttarakhand High Court (2017–18): Granted legal personhood to the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, along with the Gangotri and Yamunotri glaciers. However, the Supreme Court later stayed this ruling.
• Punjab and Haryana High Court (2020): Recognized Sukhna Lake (Chandigarh) as a living entity for environmental protection.
• These decisions stem from the Doctrine of Parens Patriae, which allows the state to act as a guardian for those who cannot protect themselves—extending this protection to natural entities such as rivers, forests, and wildlife.

In News:

Recently, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (UNESCO-IOC) announced the signature of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) enabling the creation of the Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM).

What is the Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM)?

• It is a collaborative governance initiative aimed at the sustainable management of marine resources in the Caribbean and North Brazil Shelf region.
• Conceived under the 10-year CLME+ Strategic Action Programme (SAP)—endorsed in 2014—it represents a transformative step toward integrated ocean governance.

Key Objectives of OCM:

• Promote sustainable fisheries
• Advance ecosystem restoration and marine spatial planning
• Establish marine protected areas (MPAs)
• Encourage pollution control and blue carbon development
• Foster cross-country and cross-institutional cooperation

It builds on lessons from earlier efforts like the Pacific Islands Regional Ocean Policy (PIROP), aiming to avoid past pitfalls such as vague targets, lack of integration, and funding shortfalls.

Significance of the Caribbean and North Brazil Shelf Region:

• Coral reefs and fisheries contribute ~$610 million annually to local economies
• The North Brazil Shelf is home to over 500 fish species
• Acts as a natural barrier against storms, crucial for climate resilience

Blue Carbon and Climate Action:

The OCM promotes blue carbon projects that utilize coastal ecosystems (like mangroves and seagrasses) for carbon storage, enhancing climate resilience and providing livelihoods to local communities.

Funding Details:

• $15 million from Global Environment Facility (GEF) via the UNDP/GEF PROCARIBE+ Project (2024–2028)
• Additional $126.02 million in co-financing mobilized
• However, the funding is modest compared to initiatives like the Global Fund for Coral Reefs (targeting $3 billion by 2030), raising concerns about OCM's long-term financial sustainability.

Role of IOC-UNESCO:

Established in 1961, the IOC of UNESCO promotes international cooperation in ocean science and policy. Key functions include:

• Marine scientific research (climate, biodiversity, sustainability)
• Tsunami warning systems
• Oceanographic data collection and dissemination
• Leading the UN Ocean Decade (2021–2030) for global marine conservation

Why OCM Matters:

• Addresses the Ocean–Climate–Biodiversity nexus
• Aims to ensure equitable access to marine resources
• Prioritizes local and vulnerable communities
• Integrates traditional knowledge with scientific research for culturally inclusive conservation

In News:

After a four-year hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Galwan Valley clash, India and China have agreed to resume the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra in June 2025, along with other confidence-building measures.

This decision aligns with the 75th anniversary of India-China diplomatic relations, symbolizing an attempt to stabilize and recalibrate bilateral ties through people-centric initiatives.

Key Highlights:

Key announcements include:

• Resumption of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra
• Restoration of direct air services
• Visa issuance for journalists and think tanks
• Hydrological data sharing and cooperation on trans-border rivers
• Enhanced people-to-people exchanges and academic/media dialogues

About the Yatra

• The Yatra involves a pilgrimage to Mount Kailash and Lake Mansarovar in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (Xizang).
• Organised by India’s Ministry of External Affairs between June–September, via two routes:
  • Lipulekh Pass (Uttarakhand)
  • Nathu La Pass (Sikkim)
• Supported by the state governments of Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Delhi, and coordinated with the Indo-Tibetan Border Police.
• Open only to Indian citizens with valid passports; no financial subsidy is provided by the Government of India.

Geographical and Religious Significance:

• Mount Kailash, located in the Kailash Range (Transhimalaya), is the source of four major rivers: Sutlej, Brahmaputra, Indus, and Karnali.
• Revered across religions:
  • Hindus consider it the abode of Lord Shiva; Mansarovar is one of the 51 Shaktipeeths.
  • Buddhists and Tibetans regard it as the ‘Stairway to Heaven’.
  • Jains believe Rishabhanatha attained enlightenment here—referred to as Ashtapada.

Diplomatic Interpretations and Differences

• India’s Position: Emphasized a step-by-step, cautious approach focusing on rebuilding trust and resolving contentious issues, particularly the border situation. India sought policy predictability and transparency in trade, and reaffirmed the importance of mutual respect and interests.
• China’s Position: Took a more optimistic and strategic stance, stressing the need to avoid "mutual suspicion" and to advance cooperation based on long-term national interests. It emphasized early action, including the swift resumption of the Yatra and flights.

Ongoing Concerns in Bilateral Relations

• Unresolved Border Disputes:
  • Tensions persist along the Line of Actual Control (LAC)—notably in Galwan (2020) and Tawang (2022).
  • India and China have made limited progress in resolving issues in Depsang and Demchok.
• Trade Imbalance:
  • Bilateral trade in 2023–24 stood at USD 118.4 billion, with India facing a trade deficit of USD 85 billion.
  • India raised concerns on market access and non-tariff barriers.
• China-Pakistan Axis:
  • The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) runs through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, violating India’s territorial sovereignty.
  • China’s support for Pakistan in multilateral forums remains a thorn in bilateral ties.
• China’s Regional Assertiveness:
  • Expanding influence in South Asia and the Indian Ocean through the String of Pearls, strategic presence in Maldives, Sri Lanka, and strong claims in the South China Sea, contribute to regional unease.

Significance of the Current Diplomatic Thaw

• The resumption of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra reflects a symbolic softening in ties, emphasizing religious diplomacy and people-to-people connection.
• Restoration of direct flights and journalistic presence can aid in reducing mistrust.
• Hydrological cooperation, particularly over the Brahmaputra River, is essential for India’s water security, especially with China constructing mega-dams upstream.

Way Forward

• Rebuild Trust Through Engagement: Maintain diplomatic dialogues via platforms like BRICS, SCO, and G20, while holding to core national interests.
• Resolve Border Disputes: Pursue early finalization of the LAC through confidence-building agreements and military disengagement.
• Diversify Economic Strategy: Reduce dependency on Chinese imports by strengthening domestic manufacturing and regional trade alternatives.
• Enhance Cultural Diplomacy: Use platforms like the Kailash Yatra to foster mutual understanding rooted in shared civilizational values.
• Promote Transparency and Reciprocity: Especially in media, trade, and information sharing, to ensure balanced bilateral engagement.

In News:

The Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal-Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (PKC-ERCP), part of the National Interlinking of Rivers (ILR) programme, aims to address water scarcity in 23 districts of Rajasthan, potentially benefiting 3.45 crore people. However, it has raised serious concerns over its ecological impact, particularly on the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve.

About the PKC-ERCP Project:

Aspect                     Details

Objective                To channel surplus water from the Chambal basin for irrigation, drinking, and industrial use in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

Estimated Cost       ?72,000 crore (90% funded by the Central Government)

Water Allocation      4,100 MCM to Rajasthan and 3,000 MCM to Madhya Pradesh

Rivers Involved          Chambal, Parbati, Kalisindh, Banas, and tributaries

Major Structure        39 m high, 1.6 km long dam across the Banas River, a Chambal tributary, near Doongri village, ~30 km from Sawai Madhopur

Submergence and Environmental Concerns:

• Total Submergence: ~408.86 sq km in Rajasthan.
• Reservoir Impact: 227 sq km to be submerged under the proposed dam across Banas River.
• Impact on Tiger Reserve:
  • 37.03 sq km of the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve (total area: 1,133 sq km) to be submerged.
  • This includes parts of Ranthambore National Park (392 sq km) and Keladevi Wildlife Sanctuary (674 sq km).
  • May fragment the reserve, disrupting wildlife corridors and tiger movement.
• Ranthambore’s Significance:
  • Home to ~57 tigers, it is one of India’s most prominent conservation areas.
  • Situated at the Aravalli-Vindhya junction, with rich biodiversity, including leopards, hyenas, sloth bears, and iconic flora like Dhok trees.
  • Encompasses the UNESCO-listed Ranthambore Fort and the Great Boundary Fault.

Arguments For the Project:

• Addresses chronic water scarcity in eastern Rajasthan.
• Promotes agricultural productivity, drinking water security, and industrial development.
• Aims to optimize water use by diverting surplus flows.

Arguments Against the Project:

• Biodiversity loss due to habitat submergence and reserve fragmentation.
• Risks to tiger conservation efforts.
• Potential violation of environmental safeguards under the Wildlife Protection Act and Forest Conservation norms.

Long-term ecological costs may outweigh short-term developmental gains.

In News:

India is set to deploy its first human-operated deep-sea submersible as part of the Deep Ocean Mission (DOM), marking a significant leap in the country’s marine research and technological capability.

Key Highlights:

• Submersible Deployment (2024):
  • India will operate its first human submersible at a depth of 500 meters this year.
  • The goal is to reach a depth of 6,000 meters by 2025.
  • The project aligns with the timelines of Gaganyaan, India’s first human space mission—showcasing parallel progress in marine and space technology.
• Indigenous Technology:
  • The mission is powered by 100% indigenous technology, underlining India’s growing self-reliance in high-end scientific infrastructure.

About Deep Ocean Mission (DOM):

• Launched: 2021
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
• Budget: ?4,077 crore over five years
• Framework: One of nine key missions under PM-STIAC (Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council)

Core Objectives:

• Develop deep-sea technologies, including a manned submersible for ocean exploration.
• Explore and harness ocean resources such as: Polymetallic nodules, Hydrothermal sulphides & Rare earth metals
• Study marine biodiversity for sustainable fisheries and conservation.
• Support India’s blue economy through innovation and research.
• Monitor ocean climate change and develop advisory services.
• Promote marine biology and biotechnology via dedicated marine research stations.
• Harvest renewable energy and freshwater from ocean sources.

Key Components and Technologies:

Matsya6000 Submersible:

• India’s first manned deep-sea vehicle.
• Designed to reach 6,000 meters depth.
• Crew Capacity: Three members
• Developed by: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai
• Structure: Made of titanium alloy, withstanding 6,000 bar pressure
• Equipped with: Scientific sensors, tools for sampling, viewports, propellers, and acoustic communication systems.
• Combines capabilities of ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) and AUVs (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles).

Varaha Deep-Ocean Mining System:

• Developed by NIOT
• Successfully conducted trials at 5,270 meters
• Key to India’s future in deep-sea mining of critical minerals

Strategic Importance:

• Scientific Advancement: DOM places India among a select group of nations (USA, Russia, China, France, Japan) with human-crewed deep-ocean exploration capacity.
• Economic Potential: Unlocks access to underwater mineral wealth, critical for electronics, defense, and energy sectors.
• Environmental Sustainability: Supports marine biodiversity conservation and promotes sustainable use of oceanic resources.
• Geopolitical Significance: Enhances India’s presence and influence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• Technological Leap: Strengthens India’s capabilities in underwater robotics, materials engineering, and ocean sciences.

In News:

In a controversial move, President Donald Trump (2025) signed an executive order to rename Denali (North America’s highest peak) back to Mount McKinley, and also proposed renaming the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of America, citing the need to "honor American greatness."

About Denali / Mount McKinley:

Feature                              Description

Location                           Alaska Range, South-Central Alaska, USA

Height                              20,310 feet (6,190 meters) – Highest in North America

Geology                            Giant granite block uplifted by tectonic activity ~60 million years ago

Glaciers                            Feeds major glaciers: Kahiltna, Muldrow, Peters, Ruth, Traleika

Tectonics                          Lies along the Denali Fault, a major right-lateral strike-slip fault

National Park                  Forms the core of Denali National Park and Preserve

Historical Background of the Name:

• Original Name: Denali, meaning “The High One” in the Athabascan language of the Koyukon people.
• 1897: Renamed Mount McKinley by a gold prospector in honor of President William McKinley (1897–1901).
• 1917: Official federal recognition with the creation of Mount McKinley National Park.
• 1980: Park renamed Denali National Park and Preserve; mountain's name remained McKinley federally.
• 2015: Obama administration officially renamed the peak Denali through the U.S. Department of the Interior.
• 2025: Trump issued executive order to revert the name to Mount McKinley, stating McKinley “deserves” the honor.

Rationale Behind Trump’s Renaming Order:

• Claims it honors McKinley’s legacy: economic growth, leadership in Spanish-American War, and tariff reforms.
• Declares Obama’s 2015 decision an “affront” to American heritage.
• Connects the move to his broader theme of “Restoring Names that Honor American Greatness.”

Opposition & Cultural Sensitivity:

• Alaska’s bipartisan leadership, including Senators Lisa Murkowski (R) and Scott Kawasaki (D), oppose the move.
• Indigenous groups maintain that Denali is the rightful and culturally authentic name.
• Critics argue it undermines native heritage and local identity.

Renaming the Gulf of Mexico to “Gulf of America”:

• Also part of Trump’s 2025 executive order.
• Geographic Facts:
  • Borders the US, Mexico, and Cuba.
  • Crucial to the US energy sector:
    • 14% of US crude oil
    • 5% of US natural gas
    • 48% of refining capacity
• International Validity: The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) allows local name usage but retains “Gulf of Mexico” in global records.
• Not binding on Mexico or Cuba.

International & Historical Parallels in Naming Disputes:

• Persian Gulf vs. Arabian Gulf (Iran vs. Arab states)
• Sea of Japan vs. East Sea (Japan vs. South Korea)
• South China Sea: Multiple nations claim different names and areas.

About the Denali Fault:

• Major strike-slip fault running through Alaska.
• Responsible for extensive tectonic movement and uplift of Denali.
• Evidence of horizontal displacement (~483 km) over millions of years.
• Marked the final suturing of tectonic plates in North American geological history.

In News:

Indonesia’s Mount Ibu erupted 1,000 times this month.

Overview:

• Location: Mount Ibu, Halmahera Island, North Maluku province, Indonesia.
• Volcano Type: Stratovolcano (composite volcano) – steep-sided, conical structure formed by successive layers of lava, ash, and pyroclastic material.
• Tectonic Setting: Located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a major area of subduction zones with high volcanic and seismic activity.

Volcanic Context – Indonesia:

• Pacific Ring of Fire: Indonesia's location makes it one of the most volcanically active regions globally.
• Other Recent Eruptions:
  • Mount Lewotobi Laki-Laki (twin-peaked volcano)
  • Mount Ruang
  • Both have shown heightened activity, triggering mass evacuations.

In News:

India is now the seventh-largest coffee producer globally with exports reaching $1.29 billion in FY 2023-24, almost double the $719.42 million in 2020-21.

Historical Background

• Origin: Coffee was introduced to India in the 17th century by Baba Budan, a Sufi saint, who brought seven Mocha beans from Yemen and planted them in Baba Budan Giri hills, Karnataka.
• This act laid the foundation for India’s coffee cultivation, which has since evolved into a robust agro-industry.

India’s Global Coffee Status

• 7th largest coffee producer globally (FY 2023–24).
• Exports: Reached $1.29 billion in FY 2023–24, nearly double the $719.42 million in FY 2020–21.
• Major export destinations: Italy, Belgium, Russia.
• Export Share: Over 70% of India's coffee is exported, mostly in unroasted (green bean) form.

Types of Coffee Cultivated

• Arabica: Mild flavor, higher market value.
• Robusta: Strong flavor, more robust; often used in instant coffee.
• India's production: Around 75% is a mix of Arabica and Robusta.

Geographical Distribution

• Major Coffee-Growing Regions:
  • Karnataka: Leads with over 70% of national production (~248,020 MT in 2022–23).
  • Kerala and Tamil Nadu follow.
  • Other contributors: Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and parts of Northeast India

• Agro-climatic Conditions:
  • Altitude: 600–1600 meters
  • Temperature: 15°C–28°C
  • Rainfall: 150–250 cm annually
  • Soil: Well-drained, loamy, rich in humus and minerals

Economic & Environmental Significance

• Coffee is largely grown in the Western and Eastern Ghats, biodiversity-rich zones with shade-grown plantations.
• These plantations:
  • Conserve ecology and biodiversity
  • Support sustainable agriculture
  • Contribute to rural livelihoods

Domestic Trends

• Rising café culture, urbanization, and higher disposable incomes have led to increased coffee consumption.
• Domestic consumption rose from 84,000 tonnes (2012) to 91,000 tonnes (2023).
• Preference for coffee over tea is growing, especially in urban and semi-urban India.

Government Initiatives

• Coffee Board of India initiatives under the Integrated Coffee Development Project (ICDP) aim to:
  • Enhance yields
  • Expand to non-traditional areas
  • Promote sustainable practices
• Araku Valley Model:
  • Involves 150,000 tribal families
  • 20% increase in production
  • Backed by Girijan Co-operative Corporation (GCC) and Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA)
  • Aligned with Aatmanirbhar Bharat and rural empowerment

Current Challenges and Future Outlook

• Challenges: Climate change impacts, pest attacks, price volatility in global markets.
• Opportunities:
  • Rising global demand for value-added products (roasted & instant coffee)
  • Export incentives and improved logistics
  • Potential for agri-tourism and organic branding

Cyclone Dikeledi struck Mayotte, a French overseas territory in the Indian Ocean, located in the Mozambique Channel. The cyclone caused severe flooding and damage, following closely after Cyclone Chido, which had hit the region in December 2024.

About Mayotte:

• Comprises two islands from the Comoros archipelago: Mayotte (Grande Terre) and Pamandzi (Petite Terre).
• It is the poorest region in both France and the European Union.
• Colonized by France in 1843 and annexed along with the Comoros in 1904.
• In a 1974 referendum, while 95% of Comoros opted for independence, 63% of Mayotte voted to remain French.
• While Comoros declared independence in 1975, Mayotte continues to be governed by France.

Cyclone Chido, which struck in December 2024, was recorded as the most severe storm to hit Mayotte in 90 years.

In News:

India’s coastline has grown significantly over the past five decades, now extending 11,098 km in 2023-24, compared to 7,516 km in 1970. This marks an increase of 47.6% in just over five decades, attributed to a more precise methodology for measuring coastlines.

Key Factors Behind the Growth:

New Methodology for Measuring Coastlines:

• The old methodology used straight-line distances to measure the coastline, a method that didn't capture the complexity of India’s coastlines.
• The updated approach incorporates bays, estuaries, inlets, and other geomorphological features, offering a more accurate and detailed representation of the coastline.
• Advanced technologies like geospatial mapping have been used to ensure greater precision.

State-wise Recalculated Coastline Changes:

• Gujarat:
  • Old coastline (1970): 1,214 km
  • New coastline (2023-24): 2,340 km
  • Growth: The largest absolute increase in coastline, nearly doubling its size.
• West Bengal:
  • Old coastline: 157 km
  • New coastline: 721 km
  • Growth: A dramatic 357% increase, marking the highest percentage rise.
• Tamil Nadu:
  • Old coastline: 906 km
  • New coastline: 1,068 km
  • Growth: Revised length now exceeds Andhra Pradesh’s coastline, which was 1,053 km.
• Puducherry:
  • Old coastline: No major shift, but the updated data shows a contraction of 4.9 km (-10.4%), due to erosion and recalculations.
• Kerala:
  • Old coastline: Relatively small increase of 30 km (5%), the smallest among the states.

Notable Observations:

• Andhra Pradesh is developing new ports like Ramayapatnam, Krishnapatnam, and Kakinada Gateway, aiming to boost economic growth and employment by leveraging its expanding coastline.
• The recalculated coastline helps in better maritime planning, focusing on port development, tourism, biodiversity conservation, and coastal erosion.

Impact of Coastline Expansion:

• Economic Growth:
  • Coastal states, particularly Gujarat and West Bengal, benefit from an expanded coastline that improves maritime trade, port infrastructure, and tourism.
  • The expansion supports industrialization, with growing logistics and transportation activities along the coast.
• Environmental Considerations:
  • The new data aids biodiversity conservation, helping to track coastal erosion and accretion (land buildup), especially in areas like the West Coast.
  • Understanding these changes is essential for disaster preparedness and sustainable coastal management.
• Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence:
  • Emerging Coastlines: Land rising due to uplift or falling sea levels, such as along the Tamil Nadu Coast.
  • Submerged Coastlines: Land that has sunk or been submerged due to rising sea levels, particularly noticeable along parts of Kerala’s coast.

Geographical Significance of the Expanded Coastline:

• India’s coast touches three major bodies of water: the Bay of Bengal (east), the Indian Ocean (south), and the Arabian Sea (west).
• The expansion reflects more than just geography—accurate coastline data is crucial for policy planning, maritime security, and resource management.

In News:

Kilauea volcano erupts on Hawaii's Big Island.

Location:

• Kilauea is located on the southeastern shore of Hawaii’s Big Island, within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.

Type of Volcano:

• Active Shield Volcano – Kilauea is a shield volcano, meaning it has broad, gentle slopes due to the eruption of fluid lava, which flows easily across large areas. Its eruptions tend to be less explosive than those of other types of volcanoes, creating a relatively safe environment for research and tourism compared to more volatile volcanoes.

Key Features:

• Summit Caldera: Kilauea has a large caldera at its summit, Halema'uma'u, which is a major volcanic feature. The caldera formed from the partial collapse of the volcano after the eruption of large amounts of magma. The caldera spans around 3 miles in length and 2 miles in width, covering an area of over 4 square miles.
• Rift Zones: Kilauea has two active rift zones stretching to the east and southwest, which are areas where lava can erupt and spread across the island. These rift zones are responsible for much of the volcanic activity.
• Lava Flows: Over the last 1,000 years, Kilauea has covered 90% of its surface with lava flows, making it one of the most active volcanoes in the world. It is known for producing highly fluid lava, which allows the lava to travel long distances from the eruption site.
• Historical Activity: Kilauea has had near-continuous eruptions in modern history, particularly between 1983 and 2018, with 34 eruptions since 1952. The volcano has remained active with frequent eruptions, and its lava lake was visible at the summit until 1924.
• Mythological Significance: The volcano is considered the home of Pele, the Hawaiian goddess of fire, lightning, and volcanoes. The Halema'uma'u crater is especially sacred, as it is believed to be the goddess's dwelling place.

Why is Kilauea Significant?

• Active and Young: Kilauea is one of the youngest volcanic products of the Hawaiian hotspot, a series of volcanic islands formed by the movement of the Pacific plate over a stationary plume of hot material beneath the Earth’s crust.
• Continuous Eruptions: It has been erupting regularly, with the exception of a quiet period between 1924 and 1952. Its eruptions are a significant natural phenomenon that scientists and visitors closely monitor.
• Proximity to Mauna Loa: Kilauea is located near Mauna Loa, another active shield volcano. Together, these two volcanoes form a large volcanic region, and their slopes merge seamlessly, making this area home to two of the world's most active volcanoes.

Shield Volcanoes and Kilauea

• Shield Volcanoes: A shield volcano is characterized by its broad, gentle slopes. These slopes are formed by repeated eruptions of fluid basalt lava, which spreads easily over large areas. Unlike composite volcanoes, which have steep, conical shapes, shield volcanoes like Kilauea have a much wider, dome-like appearance.
• Low Explosivity: Eruptions from shield volcanoes are generally low in explosivity, and lava flows are typically slow-moving. However, explosive events can occur if water interacts with lava, but this is relatively rare in Kilauea's eruptions.

Kilauea's Current Activity

In December 2024, Kilauea began erupting again, continuing its pattern as one of the most active volcanoes in the world. This eruption has once again drawn attention to the ongoing volcanic activity on the Big Island of Hawaii, as the volcano regularly contributes to the reshaping of the island and its landscape.

Other Volcanoes in India:

While Kilauea is known for its active status, India also has volcanic features, although most are dormant or extinct:

• Barren Island (Andaman Islands) – India’s only active volcano.
• Narcondam (Andaman Islands) – A dormant volcano.
• Baratang (Andaman Islands) – Known for mud volcanoes.
• Deccan Traps (Maharashtra) – A vast volcanic plateau formed by ancient eruptions.
• Dhinodhar Hills (Gujarat) – Extinct volcano.
• Dhosi Hill (Haryana) – An ancient volcanic site with historical significance.

In News:

Dark comets are a newly identified class of celestial objects that challenge our traditional understanding of comets and asteroids. Unlike regular comets, these objects exhibit characteristics that blur the lines between comets and asteroids, leading astronomers to closely study their nature, origin, and significance.

Discovery and Background

The first hint of dark comets appeared in 2016, when asteroid 2003 RM exhibited strange orbital deviations that suggested it might be a comet in disguise. NASA further fueled this interest in 2017 when it discovered ‘Oumuamua, an interstellar object that entered our Solar System. Though initially classified as an asteroid, its erratic motion and lack of a visible tail led scientists to consider it a dark comet. Since then, several more objects with similar characteristics have been discovered, and astronomers now identify these objects as a new class—dark comets.

Characteristics of Dark Comets

• Appearance: Dark comets do not exhibit the brilliant, glowing tails typically associated with comets. Instead, they resemble asteroids, appearing as faint points of light in space. Unlike bright comets, they do not have a visible coma (a cloud of gas and dust) or a tail, making them much harder to detect.
• Size: Dark comets are typically small, ranging from a few meters to a few hundred meters in diameter. Due to their small size, there is less surface area for material to escape, preventing the formation of the iconic tails seen in traditional comets.
• Orbital Path: These objects follow elongated, elliptical orbits. While some of them travel close to the Sun, they can also venture to the outer reaches of the Solar System, far beyond Pluto, and even into the Oort Cloud—the distant region where long-period comets are believed to originate.
• Spin and Gas Dispersion: Dark comets often rotate rapidly, dispersing gas and dust in all directions. This rapid spin contributes to their invisibility, as the gas and dust are scattered evenly, making it more difficult for astronomers to detect their presence.
• Composition: The composition of dark comets may also play a role in their lack of visibility. Over time, the materials that form the bright tails of comets may be depleted, especially for older objects. As a result, dark comets may not release enough gas to produce a visible coma or tail.

Types of Dark Comets

There are two main categories of dark comets:

• Inner Dark Comets: These are smaller objects that reside closer to the Sun and typically travel in nearly circular orbits. They are often just a few meters in size, with less surface area for gas and dust to escape.
• Outer Dark Comets: These larger objects, measuring over 100 meters in diameter, travel in highly eccentric orbits, similar to Jupiter-family comets. These dark comets follow elliptical paths that bring them close to the Sun and then send them back toward the outer reaches of the Solar System.

Importance of Studying Dark Comets

Dark comets may hold critical clues about the early Solar System and the formation of Earth. Studying these objects can provide insights into the origins of water on Earth, as well as the ingredients necessary for life. Their unique composition and orbits also offer potential for understanding the processes that led to the formation of planets.

Recent Discoveries and Advancements

Astronomers recently discovered 10 new dark comets with the help of the Dark Energy Camera (DECam) on a large telescope in Chile. The DECam, designed to study distant galaxies and stars, has enabled researchers to detect these faint objects by analyzing images of the night sky. Further progress is expected with the upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory, which will feature the largest digital camera ever built. This new instrument will allow astronomers to capture more detailed images of the night sky and detect fainter objects, potentially doubling or even tripling the number of known dark comets in the next decade.

Key Facts:

• Dark comets lack the characteristic glowing tails of typical comets, instead resembling asteroids.
• They exhibit erratic motions and follow elliptical orbits, often extending beyond Pluto and into the Oort Cloud.
• They are typically small (a few meters to hundreds of meters wide) and spin rapidly.
• The first dark comet was identified in 2016, with more discoveries made in the years since.
• The Dark Energy Camera (DECam) in Chile has been instrumental in detecting these elusive objects, with a new Vera C. Rubin Observatory expected to further enhance detection in the future.
• Studies suggest that between 0.5% and 60% of Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) could be dark comets, many originating from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

In News:

Cyclone Chido makes landfall in Mozambique after leaving trail of destruction in French-administered Mayotte.

About Cyclone Chido:

• Location and Impact:
  • Cyclone Chido struck Mayotte, a French overseas territory in the Indian Ocean, in December 2024.
  • It is the strongest storm to hit Mayotte in at least 90 years.
• Cyclone Characteristics:
  • Wind speeds exceeded 200 km/h (124 mph), with gusts surpassing 225 km/h (140 mph).
  • The cyclone caused significant devastation to the region, prompting expressions of condolences from global leaders.

• Cyclone Classification:
  • According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), cyclones are classified based on wind speed:
    • Depression: 31–49 km/h
    • Deep Depression: 50–61 km/h
    • Cyclonic Storm: 62–88 km/h
    • Severe Cyclonic Storm: 89–117 km/h
    • Very Severe Cyclonic Storm: 118–166 km/h
    • Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm: 167–221 km/h
    • Super Cyclonic Storm: Above 222 km/h
  • Cyclone Chido was classified as a Super Cyclonic Storm, based on its wind speeds exceeding 222 km/h.

About Mayotte:

• Geography:
  • Mayotte is an archipelago in the Mozambique Channel, between Madagascar and the coast of Mozambique.
  • It consists of two main islands: Grande Terre (the larger main island) and Petite Terre (the smaller island of Pamandzi).
• Political and Economic Context:
  • Mayotte is an overseas department of France, and it is the poorest territory in both France and the European Union.
  • France colonized Mayotte in 1843 and annexed the entire Comoros archipelago in 1904.
  • A 1974 referendum showed that 95% of Comoros voters favored independence, but 63% of Mayotte's population voted to remain part of France. Subsequently, Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli declared independence in 1975.
  • Mayotte remains administratively under French governance.
• Biodiversity:
  • Mayotte is renowned for its rich biodiversity, particularly for having one of the world’s largest enclosed lagoons.

Cyclones

• What is a Cyclone?
  • A cyclone is a large-scale, rotating system of air that forms around a low-pressure area, bringing violent storms and extreme weather conditions.
  • In the Northern Hemisphere, cyclones rotate anticlockwise, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they rotate clockwise due to the Coriolis effect.
• Tropical Cyclone Characteristics:
  • Calm Centre (Eye): The cyclone’s center, or "eye," experiences relatively calm weather with low air pressure.
  • High Wind Speed: Cyclones generally have average wind speeds around 120 km/h.
  • Closed Isobars: Isobars (lines of equal atmospheric pressure) are tightly packed, leading to high wind velocities.
  • Formation Over Oceans: Cyclones typically form over warm ocean waters.
  • East-to-West Movement: Influenced by trade winds, cyclones usually move from east to west.
  • Seasonal Nature: Cyclones occur during specific seasons based on regional climatic conditions.

In News:

La Niña, a phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), occurs when the Pacific Ocean region between Indonesia and South America is cooler than usual. This phenomenon influences global weather patterns, including those in India. Here’s how La Niña specifically affects India’s climate:

Monsoon Rainfall:

• La Niña typically results in normal to above-normal rainfall during the monsoon season in India. This is due to the cooling of sea surface temperatures in the central Pacific, which affects atmospheric circulation and strengthens the monsoon winds.
• In contrast, El Niño usually brings below-average rainfall and droughts to India, leading to agricultural stress.
• Recent La Niña years (2020-2022) saw above-normal monsoon rains, which benefited agricultural productivity, while the El Niño year of 2023 resulted in below-normal rains, impacting water availability and agriculture.

Winter Temperatures:

• During La Niña, winter temperatures in India are generally colder in the north, with cooler nights but relatively warmer days compared to El Niño winters. The planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) tends to be lower, trapping pollutants close to the surface. However, higher wind speeds during La Niña help to disperse air pollution, improving air quality.
• South India may experience colder-than-usual winters during La Niña, but current meteorological data suggests the ongoing winter in India is not strongly influenced by La Niña, as its expected onset has been delayed.

Impact on Summer Heat:

• La Niña generally provides relief from extreme summer heat, as it reduces the frequency and intensity of heatwaves. In contrast, El Niño summers are typically hotter and bring record-breaking heat waves.
• For example, April 2023 saw intense heatwaves across India, attributed to the El Niño phase, but if a La Niña forms and persists into the summer of 2025, it could help moderate the extreme heat.

The "Triple Dip" La Niña Phenomenon:

• A Triple Dip La Niña refers to a rare occurrence where three consecutive La Niña events happen, as was the case from 2020 to 2022. This is significant because these prolonged events can lead to stronger climatic impacts. In contrast, the current El Niño (2023) follows this period, potentially contributing to an irregular transition between La Niña and El Niño phases, which may intensify extreme weather patterns.

Global Climate Changes and La Niña:

• Climate change is believed to be increasing the frequency and intensity of both La Niña and El Niño events. Rising sea and land temperatures are disrupting the balance of the Pacific Ocean and could exacerbate extreme La Niña events, which might lead to harsher winters in India and other regions.

Forecast for 2024-2025:

• As of December 2024, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and global meteorological bodies predict a weak La Niña event to emerge by late 2024 or early 2025. This could lead to colder winters and above-normal rainfall in the 2025 monsoon season, offering some relief from the heatwaves and dry conditions of the previous years.

Conclusion:

If a La Niña forms by the end of 2024, it is likely to bring cooler winters, a relief from extreme summer heat, and above-normal monsoon rainfall in 2025. Given the delayed onset and weakening of the current La Niña, the overall impact on India’s climate in the immediate future might be milder compared to previous La Niña years, but it still holds potential for more favorable conditions for agriculture and air quality.

In News:

• A deep depression in the Southwest Bay of Bengal, 800 km south of Chennai and 500 km from Nagapattinam, is expected to become Cyclone Fengal within the next 24 hours.
• It is anticipated to move north-northwest towards Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.

Key Highlights:

Cyclone Fengal Naming:

• If the depression intensifies into a cyclone, it will be named Fengal, as suggested by Saudi Arabia.
• Fengal will follow Cyclone Dana, which made landfall in Odisha in October 2024.

Cyclone Naming Process:

• Panel Members: Cyclones in the North Indian Ocean are named by a panel of 13 countries under the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).
• Member countries include Bangladesh, India, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, the UAE, and Yemen.
• Process: Each member submits a list of 13 names, creating a rotational naming system. Names are assigned sequentially as cyclones form. Once used, a name is retired and not reused.

Cyclone Fengal’s Potential Impact:

• Fengal is expected to bring strong winds, heavy rainfall, and possible coastal flooding.
• The system’s trajectory is being closely monitored, and preparedness measures are being implemented.

Terminology of Tropical Cyclones:

Terminology                                Region                                                                                         Impact Areas

Typhoons                                      China Sea, Pacific Ocean                                      Japan, China, Philippines

Hurricanes                                   Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean                           United States, Mexico,

                                                                                                                                      Caribbean nations

Tornadoes                                    Guinea Lands (West Africa), Southern USA       Southern USA, West Africa

Willy-willies                                 Northwestern Australia                                          Australia (especially

                                                                                                                                       Northwestern region)

In News:

• The Chinar Boat Race 2024 was successfully organized in Dal Lake, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.

Key Highlights:

• Organizers:The event was hosted by the Indian Army in collaboration with White Globe NGO and the Lake Conservation and Management Authority (LCMA).
• Purpose:The race aimed to celebrate Kashmir’s culture and traditions while promoting conservation of Dal Lake.The event emphasized the ecological importance of Dal Lake and the need for its protection.
• Cultural Impact:The race attracted a large crowd of both locals and tourists, highlighting the vibrant culture of Kashmir.The event fostered a sense of community and unity, with people cheering for the participants.
• Military Engagement:The Army organizes sports and cultural events in the region to strengthen Army-public relationships, engage local youth, and promote an honourable profession in the military.

Dal Lake Overview:

• Location: Situated in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, surrounded by the PirPanjal mountains.
• Area: 18 sq. km (lake); part of a 21.1 sq. km wetland.
• Islands: Includes 3 islands, two marked by Chinar trees: Roph Lank (Silver Island) and Sone Lank (Gold Island).
• Significance: Known as the “Jewel in the crown of Kashmir” or “Srinagar’s Jewel”.
• Floating Market: Famous for its floating market where vendors use wooden boats (Shikaras) to sell goods.
• Temperature: Can drop to −11°C in winter, sometimes freezing the lake.

In News:

Hong Kong discovers dinosaur fossils for the first time

Key Details:

• • Significance: This marks the first-ever discovery of dinosaur fossils in Hong Kong.
• Time Period:The fossils date back to the Cretaceous Period, approximately 145 million to 66 million years ago.
• Fossil Details:The fossils belong to a large dinosaur, but further studies are required to determine the exact species.Initial analysis suggests the dinosaur may have been buried by sand and gravel after death, later being washed to the surface by a flood before being buried again.
• Site and Protection:Port Island, part of a geopark, is closed to the public to facilitate ongoing fossil investigations and excavation work.
• Geological and Archaeological Importance:The discovery underscores the significance of Hong Kong's geoparks and its role in preserving and showcasing natural history.This finding contributes to global understanding of prehistoric life, especially in the Cretaceous period.

In News:

Mission Mausamaims to not just improve weather forecasting in the country but also ‘manage’ certain weather events, and on demand, enhance or suppress rainfall, hail, fog and, later, lightning strikes.

• Focus Areas:
  • Enhancing or suppressing rainfall, hail, fog, and later, lightning strikes on demand.
  • Strengthening cloud physics research to better understand and modify weather conditions.

• Establishment of Cloud Chamber:
  • Location: The cloud chamber is being built at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) in Pune.
  • Purpose: To study cloud physics in detail and develop methods for weather modification.
  • Key Feature: It will be a convective cloud chamber, capable of simulating conditions specific to Indian monsoon clouds.

What is a Cloud Chamber?

• A scientific apparatus that mimics the conditions required for cloud formation.
• Function: Water vapour, aerosols, and other particles are injected into the chamber, and under controlled temperature and humidity conditions, clouds can be formed.
• Global Context: While many countries have cloud chambers, India is building one with convection properties, which are essential for studying monsoon clouds. Only a few such chambers exist globally.

Why India Needs a Convective Cloud Chamber?

• Cloud Physics: The chamber will allow scientists to study various phenomena such as:
  • Cloud behaviour under normal and extreme conditions.
  • Formation of rain droplets and ice particles.
  • Influence of moisture from cyclones or low-pressure systems.
  • Interactions between different cloud layers.
• Objective: To gain insights into cloud formation specific to the Indian monsoon and develop strategies for weather modification.

Applications for Weather Modification:

• The cloud chamber will help scientists simulate and understand how to influence weather events like rain and fog, particularly in monsoon systems.
• It will allow testing of new ideas and theories under controlled conditions, adjusting temperature, humidity, and convection parameters to suit Indian weather conditions.

India’s Experience with Cloud Seeding:

• Cloud Seeding: A technique tested in India to enhance rainfall by introducing particles (seeds) into clouds.
• CAIPEEX Program: India conducted the Cloud Aerosol Interaction and Precipitation Enhancement Experiment (CAIPEEX) over a decade to study cloud seeding's effectiveness.
  • Findings: Cloud seeding increased rainfall by up to 46% in some regions, showing its potential under specific conditions.
  • Limitations: Cloud seeding is not a one-size-fits-all solution and is effective only under certain conditions.

Significance for India’s Weather Forecasting:

• Improved Weather Modification: The cloud chamber and insights from it could lead to better management of weather events, especially in regions affected by monsoon rains, cyclones, and droughts.
• Tailored Strategies: India will be able to implement targeted weather interventions, especially in agricultural regions, to reduce the negative impacts of extreme weather.

???????Global and Regional Relevance:

• Cloud Chamber: The Pune facility will be one of the few globally with the specific focus on convective properties needed to study Indian monsoon systems.
• Role in Climate Science: India’s investment in cloud physics research positions it at the forefront of developing technologies to manage climate variability and extreme weather events.

In News:

In October 2024, Ladakh witnessed spectacular auroras, typically seen in higher latitudes, indicating increased solar activity. This phenomenon was reported following intense solar storms, with red and green lights observed in the night sky. The auroras were captured by all-sky cameras operated by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) in Hanle and Merak.

What Are Auroras?

Auroras are vibrant displays of light caused by interactions between charged particles from the Sun and Earth's magnetosphere. When solar winds—streams of charged particles—collide with atoms in the upper atmosphere, they create visible light, similar to how neon lights function.

Causes of Recent Auroras

The recent auroras in Ladakh were linked to several strong solar storms, particularly coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which are significant bursts of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona. The storms, emanating from active solar regions, traveled towards Earth at remarkable speeds, disrupting the normal space weather and allowing auroras to be visible at lower latitudes, including Mexico and Germany.

Implications of Solar Activity

Astrophysicists at the Center of Excellence in Space Sciences India (CESSI) noted that these auroras validate ongoing efforts in space weather monitoring. The increased solar activity is part of the solar cycle, which peaks approximately every 11 years. Current predictions indicate that Solar Cycle 25 may reach its peak in 2024.

Monitoring Space Weather

Organizations like the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) closely monitor space weather to provide timely warnings about solar events that could disrupt satellite communications and other services. The CESSI team successfully predicted the occurrence of solar storms, enhancing confidence in their ability to forecast space weather and its potential impacts.

Potential Hazards

While auroras are visually striking, intense solar storms can have detrimental effects, including:

• Satellite Disruption: Increased drag and radiation can damage satellites in low Earth orbit, affecting navigation, communications, and military operations.
• Communication Blackouts: Severe storms can interfere with radio and satellite communications, impacting daily life and services.

In News:

Little Prespa Lake on Albanian-Greek border slowly dying.

Overview of Little Prespa Lake's Decline

• Location and Geography:
  • Little Prespa Lake is situated on the Albanian-Greek border, primarily in Greece with a southern tip extending into Albania.
  • It covers approximately 450 hectares in Albania, now largely transformed into swamps or dry land.
• Ecological Changes:
  • Once a crystal-clear lake, it has degraded into a marshy area, with about 430 hectares in Albania suffering from significant drying.
  • Local wildlife has shifted; cows now roam where fish once thrived.
• Historical Context:
  • The lake's decline began in the 1970s when Albanian authorities diverted the Devoll River to irrigate surrounding agricultural lands, severely limiting water inflow.
• Climate Change Impact:
  • Rising temperatures, mild winters, and decreased precipitation have intensified the lake’s ecological crisis.
  • Local experts warn that continued dry winters and hot summers could lead to irreversible damage.

In News:

Recent research by scientists at the National Institute of Advanced Science (NIAS) has underlined the links between climate change, La Niña and air quality. 

Key Points on Air Quality Outlook for Delhi and North India

• Delayed La Niña & Monsoon Retreat:
  • Erosion of optimism for improved air quality this winter in Delhi.
  • Significant pollution challenges anticipated in early winter months.
  • Possible relief in December and January, contingent on La Niña strengthening.
• Impact of Stubble Burning:
  • If stubble burning occurs at half the intensity of previous years, November air quality may deteriorate.
• Research Insights:
  • Study by National Institute of Advanced Science (NIAS) links climate change, La Niña, and air quality.
  • Notable air quality improvement in winter 2022-23 was linked to La Niña conditions.
  • Late onset of La Niña contributes to air quality uncertainty.
• Changing Pollution Dynamics:
  • Shift from local emission-centric views to broader climatological factors is necessary.
  • Air quality in Delhi worsens during winter due to high humidity, calm winds, and poor pollutant dispersion.
• La Niña Delays:
  • Delayed La Niña onset means weak winds and stagnant conditions, worsening pollution.
  • Expected development between September and November 2024.
• Effects of Stubble Burning:
  • North-north-westerly winds could carry pollution from stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana into Delhi.
• Potential Outcomes of Late La Niña Onset:
  • If La Niña develops in December or January, may improve air quality slightly.
  • However, a longer, severe winter could exacerbate pollution issues due to lower inversion layers.
• NIAS-SAFAR Model Predictions:
  • Early La Niña could have worsened air quality in the peninsular region.
  • Early onset might have improved northern air quality.
• Link to Climate Change:
  • Evidence suggests extreme air pollution correlates with climate change.
  • Emphasizes the need for rigorous mitigation efforts and broader airshed management.
• Call for Rethinking Air Quality Strategies:
  • Focus on integrating larger climatic factors into air quality policies.
  • Prioritize health-centric measures through collaborative efforts with scientific bodies.

What is La Niña?

• La Niña (or ‘The Little Girl’ in Spanish) is a phase of what climatologists refer to as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a phenomenon that is a key driver of global natural climate variability.
• ENSO is characterised by changes in sea temperatures along the tropical Pacific Ocean due to atmospheric fluctuations overhead. These changes alter and interfere with the global atmospheric circulation, and influence weather worldwide.
• Occurring in irregular cycles of anywhere between two to seven years, ENSO has three phases — warm (El Niño or ‘The Little Boy’ in Spanish), cool (La Niña), and neutral.
• During the neutral phase, the eastern Pacific (off the northwestern coast of South America) is cooler than the western Pacific (around Philippines and Indonesia). This is because prevailing trade winds — caused by Earth’s rotation, between 30 degrees north and south of the equator — move east to west, sweeping warmer surface water along with them. The relatively cool waters from below rise to the surface to replace the displaced water.
• These wind systems weaken in the El Niño phase, leading to lesser displacement of warmer waters off the American coasts. Consequently, the eastern Pacific becomes warmer than usual. The opposite happens in the La Niña phase i.e. trade winds become stronger than usual and push larger quantities of water to the western Pacific.

Cyclones are intense weather systems with low atmospheric pressure and rotating winds, forming over warm tropical waters. These storms cause severe weather, including heavy rainfall, strong winds, and storm surges. Cyclones are categorized based on wind speeds, from tropical depressions to severe cyclonic storms. Warm ocean surfaces and high humidity fuel these storms, with atmospheric conditions like wind shear and moisture influencing their strength and formation.

The North Indian Ocean plays a key role in global weather systems, particularly the summer monsoon. Warm waters from the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are crucial for moisture generation during monsoon seasons. However, despite the warm ocean surfaces that typically promote cyclones, this region has fewer cyclones compared to other tropical oceans. A mix of factors—both promoting and suppressing cyclone formation—makes the North Indian Ocean a unique and less cyclone-prone area.

The Indian Ocean stands out due to its monsoonal circulation, marked by seasonal wind reversals north of the equator. It also has "oceanic tunnels" connecting it to the Pacific and Southern Oceans, which influence its weather. The Pacific tunnel introduces warm water into the upper layers, while the Southern Ocean brings cooler waters into deeper levels. These oceanographic features contribute to distinct weather patterns, including influencing the formation and behavior of cyclones.

As the pre-monsoon season begins and the Sun moves into the northern hemisphere, the Arabian Sea rapidly warms. The Bay of Bengal, typically warmer, heats further, driving atmospheric convection and rainfall. These warming patterns make the Bay of Bengal more prone to cyclones, while the Arabian Sea, with its cooler waters and stronger wind shear, experiences less cyclone activity. These conditions contribute to significant differences in cyclone formation between the two seas.

Impact of Climate Change on Cyclones in the Indian Ocean

Climate change is amplifying the Indian Ocean’s warming, bringing in more heat from the Pacific Ocean while the Southern Ocean pushes warmer waters into deeper layers. These changes, combined with shifts in winds and atmospheric humidity, are causing the Indian Ocean to warm at a rapid pace. This warming is affecting cyclone formation, increasing the frequency and intensity of storms. The Indian Ocean acts as a "clearinghouse" for ocean warming, impacting global weather patterns and intensifying cyclone activity.

Monsoon and Cyclone Seasons in the North Indian Ocean

• The monsoon heavily influences cyclone activity in the region. During the monsoon, strong winds cool the Arabian Sea, reducing the likelihood of cyclone formation. In contrast, the Bay of Bengal sees more low-pressure systems, although many do not become cyclones due to wind shear that weakens their energy.
• The North Indian Ocean experiences two distinct cyclone seasons—pre-monsoon and post-monsoon—unlike other regions that typically have just one. Cooler temperatures and stronger wind shear keep cyclone numbers low in the Arabian Sea, compared to the Bay of Bengal.
• Cyclone Asna, formed in August 2023, was a rare cyclone for this time of year. It developed from a land-based depression that moved over the Arabian Sea, marking the first August cyclone in the region since 1981. This rare occurrence highlights how rapidly warming oceans, influenced by climate change and El Niño, can drive unexpected cyclone formations.

In News:

A devastating series of events unfolded in Vietnam, as a bridge collapsed and a bus was swept away by severe flooding, raising the death toll to at least 65. The fatalities are attributed to Typhoon Yagi and the subsequent heavy rains, which have wreaked havoc across the Southeast Asian country.

In Depth:

• The typhoon made landfall in Vietnam’s northern coastal provinces of Quang Ninh and Haiphong with wind speeds of up to 149 kilometers per hour (92 miles per hour) on Saturday afternoon.
• It raged for roughly 15 hours before gradually weakening into a tropical depression early Sunday morning.
• Vietnam’s meteorological department predicted heavy rain in northern and central provinces and warned of floods in low-lying areas, flash floods in streams and landslides on steep slopes.

What is a cyclone?

• The term 'Cyclone' is derived from the Greek word 'Cyclos' which means 'Coiling of the Snake'.
•  Cyclones are created by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area and are usually accompanied by violent storms and severe weather conditions. Basically, a tropical cyclone is a deep low-pressure area.

Why is it in the News?

The first cyclone in the Bay of Bengal this pre-monsoon season, Cyclone Remal, is expected to make landfall between Sagar Island in West Bengal and Bangladesh's Khepupara on Sunday midnight.

About Cyclone Remal:

• The IMD has forecasted that a depression in the Bay of Bengal is likely to concentrate into a severe cyclonic storm and make landfall between Sagar Island in West Bengal and Khepupara in Bangladesh around May 26 midnight.

Name of the cyclone:

• If the cyclone is formed, it will be named 'Remal', which means 'sand' in Arabic.
• The cyclone has been named ‘Remal’, according to a system of naming cyclones in the Indian Ocean region.
• A standard naming convention is followed for tropical cyclones forming in the North Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
• As the IMD is a part of the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres (RSMCs), it gives names to the tropical cyclones after consulting 12 other countries in the region.
• The name 'Remal' has been suggested by Oman which means 'sand' in Arabic.

What is a Tropical Cyclone?

• A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure centre, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain.
• These cyclones develop over warm tropical or subtropical waters and can cause significant damage due to high winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges.

How a Tropical Cyclone is Formed?

• Tropical cyclones form over warm ocean waters near the equator.
• The process begins when warm, moist air rises from the ocean surface, creating an area of low pressure.
• This causes surrounding air with higher pressure to move toward the low-pressure area, warming up and rising as well.
• As this air rises and cools, the moisture condenses to form clouds.
• The system of clouds and wind starts to spin and grow, fueled by the ocean's heat.
• When the wind speeds increase sufficiently, an eye forms in the centre of the cyclone.

Characteristics of a Tropical Cyclone:

• Calm Center: The eye of the cyclone is calm and clear, with very low air pressure.
• High Wind Speeds: The average wind speed of a tropical cyclone is around 120 km/h.
• Closed Isobars: These are lines on a weather map that connect areas of equal atmospheric pressure, leading to greater wind velocity.
• Oceanic Origin: Tropical cyclones develop over oceans and seas.
• Movement: They typically move from east to west under the influence of trade winds.
• Seasonal: Tropical cyclones are seasonal phenomena.

How are Cyclones Classified?

• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) classifies cyclones based on wind speeds:
  • Depression: Wind speeds between 31–49 km/h
  • Deep Depression: Wind speeds between 50-61 km/h
  • Cyclonic Storm: Wind speeds between 62–88 km/h
  • Severe Cyclonic Storm: Wind speeds between 89-117 km/h
  • Very Severe Cyclonic Storm: Wind speeds between 118-166 km/h
  • Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm: Wind speeds between 166-221 km/h
  • Super Cyclonic Storm: Wind speeds above 222 km/h

Why is it in the News?

Last month, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) forecasted above-normal rain in the upcoming monsoon season in India, with “favourable” La Nina conditions expected to set in by August-September.

What are El Niño and La Nina?

• El Niño (meaning “little boy” in Spanish) and La Nina (meaning “little girl” in Spanish) are climate phenomena that are a result of ocean-atmosphere interactions, which impact the temperature of waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean which affects global weather.
• The Earth’s east-west rotation causes all winds blowing between 30 degrees to the north and south of the equator to slant in their trajectory.
  • As a result, winds in the region flow towards a southwesterly direction in the northern hemisphere and a northwesterly direction in the southern hemisphere which is known as the Coriolis Effect.
• Due to this, winds in this belt (called trade winds) blow westwards on either side of the equator.
  • Under normal ocean conditions, these trade winds travel westwards along the equator from South America towards Asia.
  • Wind movement over the ocean results in a phenomenon called upwelling, where cold water beneath the ocean surface rises and displaces the warm surface waters.
• At times, the weak trade winds get pushed back towards South America and there is no upwelling.
  • Thus, warmer-than-usual sea surface temperatures are recorded along the equatorial Pacific Ocean, and this is known as the emergence of El Niño conditions.
• Conversely, during La Nina, strong trade winds push warm water towards Asia.
  • Greater upwelling gives rise to cold and nutrient-rich water towards South America.
  • Thus, climatologically, El Niño and La Nina are opposite phases of what is collectively called the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
  • It also includes a third neutral phase.
• El Niño events are far more frequent than La Nina ones.
  • Once every two to seven years, neutral ENSO conditions get interrupted by either El Niño or La Nina.
  • Recently, La Nina conditions prevailed between 2020 and 2023.

How could the incoming La Nina impact global weather?

• La Niña, driven by the cooling of ocean waters due to the ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) cycle, can significantly influence global weather patterns.
• The air circulation loop in the region, affected by these temperature changes, impacts precipitation levels in neighbouring areas and can alter the Indian monsoon.
• Currently, the El Niño event that began in June last year has significantly weakened.
• Neutral ENSO conditions are expected to be established by June.
• Following this, La Niña conditions are anticipated to emerge, with its effects likely becoming apparent from August.

La Nina’s Impact on India:

• With above normal rain forecast, the seasonal rainfall is expected to be 106 per cent of the Long Period Average (LPA), which is 880mm (1971-2020 average).
• Except in east and northeast India, all remaining regions are expected to receive normal or above-seasonal rainfall.
  • Heavy rains could result in some regions witnessing riverine and urban flooding, mudslides, landslides and cloudbursts.
• East and northeast India region, during La Nina years, receive below average seasonal rainfall.
  • Therefore, there may be a shortfall in water reserves there this year.
• During La Nina years, incidents of thunderstorms generally increase.
  • “The east and northern India regions could experience thunderstorms accompanied by lightning.
• With increased farming activities undertaken during the July and August rainy months, which coincides with the season’s enhanced lightning and thunderstorms, there is a high risk of fatalities in these regions.
• In addition to ENSO, there are other parameters that can impact the monsoon.
• However, in a La Nina year, a deficit monsoon over India can be easily ruled out.

La Nina’s Impact on the World:

• Similar to India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia and their neighbouring countries receive good rainfall during a La Nina year.
  • This year, Indonesia has already witnessed floods.
• On the other hand, droughts are common in southern regions of North America, where winters become warmer than usual.
  • Canada and the northwestern coast of the United States see heavy rainfall and flooding.
  • Southern Africa receives higher than usual rainfall, whereas eastern regions of the continent suffer below-average rainfall.
• ENSO has a huge impact on hurricane activity over the Atlantic Ocean.
• During a La Nina year, the hurricane activity here increases.
  • For instance, the Atlantic Ocean churned out a record 30 hurricanes during the La Nina year 2021.

Is Climate Change Affecting ENSO?

• Over India, El Niño is known to suppress the southwest monsoon rainfall and drive higher temperatures and intense heat waves, like the present summer season.
• In the past, monsoon seasons during years following an El Niño were 1982-1983 and 1987-1988, with both 1983 and 1988 recording bountiful rainfall.
  • At present too, a similar situation could play out.
• The 2020-2023 period witnessed the longest La Nina event of the century.
• Thereafter, ENSO neutral conditions developed, which soon gave way to El Niño by June 2023 which has been weakening since December last year.
• Scientists say that climate change is set to impact the ENSO cycle.
• Many studies suggest that global warming tends to change the mean oceanic conditions over the Pacific Ocean and trigger more El Niño events.
• The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has also said that climate change is likely to affect the intensity and frequency of extreme weather and climate events linked to El Niño and La Nina.

Why is it in the News?

The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has recently forecasted an 83% likelihood that the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) will move into a neutral range between April and June 2024.

What is the Oceanic Niño Index?

• The Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) primary indicator for monitoring El Niño and La Niña, which are opposite phases of the climate pattern called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or “ENSO” for short.
  • NOAA is a US governmental agency responsible for monitoring and researching the Earth's oceans, atmosphere, and climate, and providing weather forecasts and environmental data.
• The ONI is the difference between a three-month running average of the sea surface temperature averaged over an area of the ocean from 120 West to 170 West longitude along the equator and the long-term average for the same three months.
• NOAA considers El Niño conditions to be present when the Oceanic Niño Index is +0.5 or higher, indicating the east-central tropical Pacific is significantly warmer than usual.
• La Niña conditions exist when the Oceanic Niño Index is -0.5 or lower, indicating the region is cooler than usual.

What is El Niño and La Niña?

• El Niño and La Niña are two natural climate phenomena that occur in the Pacific Ocean, characterized by fluctuations in ocean surface temperatures.
• They are part of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle, which impacts global weather patterns.
  • El Niño refers to the warming of ocean surface temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific.
    • This warming causes changes in atmospheric pressure and wind patterns, which can lead to drought conditions in parts of South America and heavy rainfall in other regions, such as the southern United States.
  • La Niña is the opposite phase of the ENSO cycle, characterized by cooler-than-average ocean surface temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific.
    • This results in the strengthening of normal trade winds, causing increased rainfall in some regions, such as Indonesia and northern Australia, and drier conditions in other areas, including the southwestern United States.

Effects of El Niño and La Niña on India:

• Both El Niño and La Niña have significant impacts on India's climate, particularly during the monsoon season.
• El Niño events often lead to weaker monsoon winds and reduced rainfall in India, causing droughts and impacting agricultural production.
• On the other hand, La Niña events typically result in stronger monsoon winds and higher rainfall, leading to better agricultural yields.
  • However, excessive rainfall can also cause floods and landslides in some regions.
• Monitoring and predicting the occurrence of El Niño and La Niña events is crucial for India's weather forecasting and agricultural planning.
• Accurate predictions enable authorities to take necessary measures to mitigate potential adverse effects on agriculture and infrastructure.

Why is it in the News?

The principal bench of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) in New Delhi has initiated action on the Netravati Waterfront Promenade Development Project in Mangaluru.

About the Netravati River:

• The Netravati River, also known as Netravathi Nadi, originates from the Bangrabalige valley, Yelaneeru Ghat in Kudremukh, Chikkamagaluru district, Karnataka, India.
• It passes through the revered pilgrimage site Dharmasthala, earning recognition as one of India's sacred rivers.
• Converging with the Kumaradhara River at Uppinangadi, it eventually flows into the Arabian Sea, south of Mangalore city, serving as the primary water source for Bantwal and Mangalore.
• The Netravati railway bridge, a prominent structure, acts as the gateway to Mangalore.
• Historically known as the Bantwal River, it was documented as unfordable during the South-West Monsoon in the 1855 Gazetteer of Southern India.
• The river's navigability by small country craft and its influence on local geography and transport, including the naming of the Netravati Express train, underscores its significance in the region's history.
• Instances of flooding, notably in 1928 and 1974, have shaped the lives of residents, prompting relocations and resilience

About the National Green Tribunal:

• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established under the National Green Tribunal Act of 2010.
• While its principal seat is located in New Delhi, it also holds sessions in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai.
• The NGT is entrusted with the responsibility of adjudicating applications or appeals, ensuring their final disposition within six months of filing.

Composition:

• The tribunal comprises a Chairperson, Judicial Members, and Expert Members, each serving a non-renewable term of five years.
• The appointment of the Chairperson is made by the Central Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
• A Selection Committee, constituted by the Central Government, is responsible for appointing both Judicial and Expert Members.
• The tribunal can accommodate a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 20 full-time Judicial and Expert Members.

Powers & Jurisdiction:

• Established to efficiently handle cases concerning environmental protection and conservation of natural resources, including forests.
• It possesses appellate jurisdiction akin to a court.
• While not bound by the procedural formalities outlined in the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, the NGT operates based on the principles of natural justice.

Why is it in the News?

Exploring ancient cratons such as the Singhbhum Craton in India, alongside similar formations in South Africa and Australia, provides unparalleled insights into the early stages of our planet's development, reaching back approximately 3.5 billion years.

What is Singhbhum Craton?

• The Singhbhum Craton encompasses a vast expanse of rugged terrain, primarily spanning regions in Jharkhand and Odisha, situated between the Chhota Nagpur plateau and the Eastern Ghats.
• Dating back approximately 3.5 billion years, this ancient segment of the Earth's crust offers valuable insights into early geological processes.
• Its oldest rock formations consist predominantly of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, referred to as greenstone successions.
  • Greenstones are characterised by submarine volcanic rocks with minor sedimentary components.
• Geologically akin to greenstone belts in South Africa's Barberton and Nondweni regions and the Pilbara Craton in Western Australia, these areas experienced extensive submarine mafic volcanic activity, rich in magnesium oxide, between 3.5 and 3.3 billion years ago, with preserved features like pillowed lava and komatiites.

Significance:

• The Singhbhum Craton sheds light on early tectonic activities during the Archaean era, enhancing our understanding of the Earth's formative stages.
• Its distinctive geological characteristics, particularly the presence of greenstone belts, yield invaluable data on surface and atmospheric processes crucial for theorising about early habitable conditions and the emergence of life on Earth.

What are Cratons?

• A craton is a stable and ancient part of Earth's lithosphere that has experienced long-term tectonic and geomorphic stability.
• It is considered to be the nucleus of a continent and is characterised by its thick and cold lithosphere.
• Cratons can undergo destruction, which is defined as a geological process resulting in the loss of craton stability due to changes in its physical and chemical properties.
• The mechanisms responsible for craton destruction include oceanic plate subduction, rollback and retreat of subducting plates, stagnation and dehydration of subducting plates in the mantle transition zone, melting of the mantle caused by dehydration of stagnant slabs, non-steady flow in the upper mantle induced by melting, and changes like the lithospheric mantle.
• Craton destruction can lead to crustal thinning, surface uplift, and the concentration of mineral deposits.