Five Years of the National Education Policy 2020

- 05 Aug 2025
In News:
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, India’s third education policy since Independence, was envisioned as a transformative roadmap to make India a “global knowledge superpower.” Five years since its launch, the policy has driven important reforms in both school and higher education. However, progress has been uneven—while curriculum redesign, early childhood education, and digital learning have taken shape, federal tensions, institutional inertia, and funding constraints continue to slow its full realization.
Key Gains in School Education
The NEP replaced the 10+2 structure with a 5+3+3+4 model (foundational, preparatory, middle, secondary). The National Curriculum Framework (2023) set competency-based outcomes, and NCERT released new textbooks for classes 1–8, integrating subjects such as history and geography into a single volume.
Early childhood care and education (ECCE) has gained traction through the JaaduiPitara kits and a national ECCE curriculum. Delhi, Karnataka, and Kerala have enforced the minimum age of six for class 1. However, improving Anganwadi training and infrastructure remains critical.
Under NIPUN Bharat (2021), literacy and numeracy by class 3 became a national focus. Yet, survey data show proficiency levels at 64% (language) and 60% (math)—progressive but below NEP’s universal goals.
Higher Education Reforms
One of NEP’s boldest ideas, the Academic Bank of Credits (ABC) and National Credit Framework (NCrF), introduced flexibility with multiple entry-exit options: a certificate after one year, a diploma after two, and a four-year degree. While nearly 90% of HEIs report multidisciplinary curricula, only 36% have implemented multiple entry-exit, and just 64% maintain ABC records, indicating patchy adoption.
The Common University Entrance Test (CUET), introduced in 2022, streamlined admissions by replacing multiple entrance exams. Global outreach expanded, with IIT Madras (Zanzibar), IIT Delhi (Abu Dhabi), and IIM Ahmedabad (Dubai) opening campuses abroad, while foreign universities such as the University of Southampton entered India.
Digital education emerged as a strong adoption area: 96% of HEIs use SWAYAM/DIKSHA, and 94% invested in digital infrastructure. Yet, equitable access and integration of MOOCs into degree programs remain challenges.
Reforms in Progress
- Board exams: From 2026, CBSE will allow class 10 students to appear twice a year to reduce stress.
- Holistic assessment: PARAKH has developed competency-based report cards, though most boards are yet to implement them.
- Four-year undergraduate degrees: Adopted by some central universities and Kerala, but slowed by faculty shortages and weak infrastructure.
- Mother tongue instruction: Encouraged till class 5, with NCERT preparing multilingual textbooks.
Sticking Points and Bottlenecks
Some reforms remain stalled:
- Three-language formula has been rejected by Tamil Nadu as linguistic imposition.
- Teacher education reform lags, with the National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education still pending.
- Higher Education Commission of India (HECI), meant to replace UGC, remains in draft stage.
- Breakfast alongside midday meals, recommended by NEP, was rejected due to financial constraints.
Federalism poses a key hurdle. Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal refused to adopt PM-SHRI schools, citing central overreach, leading to funding freezes under Samagra Shiksha. Karnataka oscillated—adopting and later scrapping the four-year UG model—while pursuing its own state education policy.
Conclusion
Five years on, NEP 2020 has delivered structural reforms in school curricula, foundational learning, higher education flexibility, and digital adoption. Yet, its transformative potential remains unrealized due to limited faculty capacity, uneven state cooperation, and financial bottlenecks. For NEP to succeed, the Union and states must collaborate, ensuring adequate funding, teacher training, and institutional autonomy. Without resolving these foundational issues, the NEP risks remaining a vision more on paper than in classrooms.
Slums in Flood-Prone Areas: India’s Dual Challenge of Urbanisation and Climate Risks
- 04 Aug 2025
In News:
A global study published in Nature Cities has revealed that India has the highest number of slum clusters in flood-prone areas worldwide, underscoring the nexus between rapid urbanisation, poverty, and increasing climate-related risks. This trend highlights both developmental and governance challenges for India as it seeks to balance inclusive growth with climate resilience.
Global Trends in Flood Risk and Slum Settlements
- India at the Forefront: Over 158 million slum dwellers live in flood-prone areas in India, particularly in the Ganga delta. Nearly 40% of slum residents inhabit high-risk urban and peri-urban zones.
- Regional Pattern: India is followed by Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan in terms of vulnerable populations. Globally, slum dwellers are 32% more likely to reside in floodplains than other communities.
- Global South Impact: About 33% of informal settlements in low- and middle-income countries are already exposed to flooding. Hotspots include Rwanda, Morocco, and coastal Brazil.
- Cities at Risk: High slum density correlates with flood-prone megacities such as Mumbai and Jakarta.
Drivers of Flood Vulnerability in India
- Riverine Floods: Frequent in the Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Krishna basins, driven by monsoon rains, snowmelt, and dam-related issues.
- Urban Expansion: Between 1985–2015, India ranked third globally in urban growth into flood-prone areas. Cities like Mumbai and Bengaluru have expanded into natural floodplains.
- Flash Floods: Incidents rose from 132 (2020) to 184 (2022), with severe events in Himachal Pradesh (2025), Wayanad (2024), Ladakh (2024), and Sikkim (2023).
- 75% of flash floods stem from a mix of extreme rainfall and saturated soils.
- Climate Change: Between 1981–2020, extreme rainfall events doubled, with monsoon rains intensifying by 56%, raising flood frequency.
- Poor Drainage & Encroachments: Urban floods in Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Chennai worsened by clogged drains and plastic waste (e.g., Chennai floods 2015).
- Weak Local Planning: Absence of region-specific flood risk assessments hampers effective urban land-use planning and disaster preparedness.
Slums in India: Extent and Challenges
- Definitions:
- Pranab Sen Committee (2010) – compact settlements of ≥20 households with poor housing, sanitation, and water facilities.
- UN-Habitat – lack of durable housing, secure tenure, sufficient living space, safe water, or sanitation.
- Census 2011: 17% of urban India lived in 1.39 crore slum households.
- NSSO 2012: 33,510 slums identified nationwide.
- Hotspot States: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
- Major Cities: Mumbai and Kolkata host some of the densest slum populations.
- Regulation: The Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956 governs slum rehabilitation in Union Territories; “Land” and “Colonisation” are State subjects.
Existing Initiatives
- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U): Pucca houses with amenities; as of Dec 2024, 118.64 lakh houses sanctioned, 29 lakh for slum dwellers.
- AMRUT & Smart Cities Mission: Infrastructure upgrades in water, sanitation, and drainage.
- Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban 2.0: Target of garbage-free cities.
- IFLOWS-Mumbai and CFLOWS-Chennai: Integrated flood warning systems.
Way Forward: Towards Sustainable Urban Flood and Slum Management
- Region-Specific Flood Strategies: Based on topography and soil; integrate into the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP).
- Restrict Expansion into Floodplains: Enforce zoning laws and incorporate flood-resilient infrastructure under Smart Cities Mission.
- Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS): Rain gardens, permeable pavements, and green spaces.
- Upgrading Slums: Use PMAY-U for resilient housing, raised plinths, and better drainage.
- Data-Driven Risk Mapping: Use NRSC, IMD, and satellite imagery to monitor risks and emerging hotspots.
- Sponge City Model: Adopt Shanghai-style rainwater absorption systems; Mumbai has begun implementing this.
- Eco-Restoration of Water Bodies: Revive urban lakes/wetlands (e.g., Jakkur Lake in Bengaluru) for natural flood control.
- Climate Adaptation Mainstreaming: Integrate climate resilience into urban planning and housing policies.
Conclusion
India’s dual challenge of informal urbanisation and intensifying floods poses a direct threat to sustainable urban development. As the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) approach, urgent focus is needed on SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 1 (No Poverty).
Strengthening governance, upgrading slum infrastructure, and integrating climate resilience into planning are critical to safeguard millions living at the intersection of poverty and environmental risk.
Why the World Needs Better Green Technologies

- 03 Aug 2025
In News:
The 21st century energy transition is unfolding under multiple pressures: climate change, geopolitical conflicts, rising energy demand, and the pursuit of energy self-sufficiency. While the rapid deployment of silicon photovoltaics and the promotion of green hydrogen represent important milestones, critical questions remain about their long-term efficiency, sustainability, and ability to meet net-zero goals. The urgency lies not only in scaling up renewable deployment but also in accelerating innovation in next-generation green technologies.
Green Technologies: Definition and Scope
Green technologies encompass scientific innovations and engineering systems that reduce environmental harm, minimize carbon emissions, and promote sustainable energy generation and resource use. They include solar, wind, hydrogen, artificial photosynthesis, and emerging renewable fuels.
Limits of Existing Technologies
1. Silicon Photovoltaics (PV)
- Efficiency Constraints: Conventional silicon solar panels deliver only 15–18% field efficiency, while advanced alternatives such as gallium arsenide thin-film panels can reach ~47% efficiency.
- Land-Use Pressure: Low efficiency translates into vast land requirements. Doubling efficiency would halve land needs—critical for densely populated countries like India, where land is contested between urbanisation, agriculture, and biodiversity conservation.
- Geopolitical Dependence: Nearly 80% of global solar panel supply comes from China, creating vulnerabilities for India despite its domestic capacity of ~6 GW (and growing).
2. Green Hydrogen Challenges
- Energy Balance: Electrolysis requires more energy input than the usable output of hydrogen.
- Storage & Transport: Hydrogen’s low density and high leakage risk make it costly and difficult to handle.
- Conversion Losses: Transforming hydrogen into ammonia or methanol for easier transport adds further energy penalties. Thus, the "greenness" of green hydrogen is often overstated.
3. Rising CO? Despite Renewable Growth
Despite exponential solar expansion (global renewable capacity ~4.45 TWh by 2024), atmospheric CO? levels have risen from 350 ppm (1990) to ~425 ppm (2025). This underscores the gap between renewable deployment and rising global energy demand.
The Case for Disruptive Innovation
Artificial Photosynthesis (APS)
Mimicking natural photosynthesis, APS aims to produce fuels directly from sunlight, water, and CO?. Though currently in the laboratory stage, it offers a future pathway to bypass multi-step conversion processes.
Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBO)
Already being pursued in Europe, RFNBOs seek to generate carbon-neutral fuels directly from renewable resources without biomass. India, currently importing nearly 85% of its energy resources (oil, coal, gas), could benefit immensely by investing in such technologies.
Challenges to Adoption
- High R&D Costs and Long Gestation Periods for technologies like APS and multi-junction photovoltaics.
- Supply Chain Dependence on China for solar components.
- Lack of Large-Scale Validation of emerging technologies.
- Private Sector Hesitation due to uncertain returns on futuristic innovations.
Way Forward for India
- Boost R&D Funding: Allocate a larger share of climate finance to disruptive technologies such as APS, RFNBOs, and high-efficiency photovoltaics.
- Public-Private Partnerships: Encourage startups and industries to collaborate with national labs and global players.
- Technology Diversification: Develop an ecosystem combining solar, wind, hydrogen, nuclear, and waste-to-energy.
- Land-Efficient Solutions: Promote rooftop solar, floating solar, and building-integrated PVs to mitigate land scarcity.
- Global Collaboration: Strengthen engagement in initiatives such as Mission Innovation and the India–EU Green Deal for technology transfer and joint innovation.
Conclusion
Current green technologies, though pivotal, are insufficient to meet the scale of the climate crisis. The challenge is not just to be “green” in name, but to ensure measurable efficiency, sustainability, and independence. For India, energy security and climate goals converge on a common path: technology foresight, not just technology deployment. Investing in next-generation innovations today will be far cheaper than bearing the costs of climate inaction tomorrow.
Surrogacy Age Cap Debate before the Supreme Court

- 02 Aug 2025
Background – The Legal Framework on Surrogacy in India
India has been a global hub for assisted reproductive technologies (ART) and surrogacy for many years. To address ethical concerns, prevent exploitation, and regulate practices, Parliament enacted two laws in 2021:
- The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021
- The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021
These Acts, effective from January 2022, prohibit commercial surrogacy and allow only altruistic surrogacy (where a woman volunteers without financial compensation, apart from medical expenses and insurance).
Key Provisions:
- Age limits:
- Married woman (intending mother): 23–50 years
- Married man (intending father): 26–55 years
- Single women: only widows or divorcees aged 35–45 years
- Certificate of essentiality: Proof of infertility, parentage order, and insurance for the surrogate are mandatory.
- Purpose of the law: To prevent commodification of reproduction, ensure surrogacy is used only for genuine medical necessity, and safeguard the health of both surrogate and child.
The Case before the Supreme Court
Recently, the Supreme Court reserved judgment in a set of petitions challenging the age caps under these Acts.
Petitioners’ Concerns:
- Many couples had already begun fertility procedures before January 2022, but became ineligible midway due to the new law.
- Example: A couple aged 62 (husband) and 56 (wife) lost their only child in 2018, started fertility treatment in 2019, but after a failed embryo transfer in 2022, they were barred from further surrogacy attempts due to age restrictions.
- They argue that applying the age limits retrospectively is unfair, as no “grandfather clause” was provided to protect ongoing cases.
Constitutional Arguments:
- Article 14 (Right to Equality): Age-based exclusion is arbitrary.
- Article 21 (Right to Life & Personal Liberty): Reproductive autonomy and the right to family are integral to personal liberty.
- Discrimination against unmarried women: The law only allows widows and divorcees to access surrogacy, excluding single, never-married women.
Government’s Stand
- Age limits reflect natural reproductive timelines and medical safety.
- Advanced parental age poses risks:
- Higher complications for the surrogate.
- Genetic/epigenetic risks for the child.
- Concerns about parents’ ability to provide long-term care.
- Provisions align with international best practices in reproductive health.
Supreme Court’s Observations
The Bench, led by Justices B.V. Nagarathna and K.V. Viswanathan, raised critical questions:
- Why prohibit surrogacy at advanced ages when natural late pregnancies are not barred?
- The intent of the law was to regulate commercial surrogacy, not to deny genuine parenthood.
- The absence of compassionate transitional provisions is problematic: “Stop, no children! Look how harsh it is,” remarked Justice Nagarathna.
Ethical and Social Dimensions
- Balancing Autonomy and State Regulation:Reproductive choice vs. state’s role in safeguarding health and welfare.
- Rights of Single Women:Exclusion of unmarried women raises concerns of gender equality and individual autonomy.
- Best Interests of the Child:Child’s welfare, upbringing, and stability are central concerns in surrogacy regulation.
- Medical Ethics:Need to prevent exploitation of surrogates and maintain ethical standards in ART practices.
Broader Constitutional Questions
- Right to Parenthood as a Fundamental Right? The Court has earlier recognised reproductive rights as part of Article 21.
- Equality vs. Reasonable Classification: Can the state justify different treatment based on age or marital status?
- Legislative Gaps: The lack of a grandfather clause highlights issues in legislative foresight and transitional justice.
Conclusion
The Supreme Court’s verdict will be pivotal in shaping India’s approach to assisted reproduction. At stake is the balance between medical ethics, legislative intent, and individual reproductive rights.
The outcome may not only determine the fate of couples stuck mid-process but could also set precedents for:
- Expanding reproductive rights,
- Recognising unmarried women’s autonomy
- Ensuring compassionate legal transitions in sensitive health matters.
Coral Reef Decline in Lakshadweep
- 01 Aug 2025
Introduction:
Coral reefs, often called the “rainforests of the sea,” are vital ecosystems that sustain biodiversity, support coastal economies, and act as natural barriers against climate hazards. However, a 24-year study (1998–2022) on Lakshadweep reefs has revealed a 50% decline in coral cover—from 37.2% in 1998 to 19.6% in 2022. The findings underscore the vulnerability of India’s reef ecosystems to climate change, while also highlighting the limits of local resilience efforts without global climate action.
Key Findings of the Study
- Drastic Decline in Coral Cover
- Repeated marine heatwaves linked to El Niño (1998, 2010, 2016) and global warming have triggered large-scale bleaching events.
- Reef recovery requires at least 6 years without heat stress, which is increasingly rare.
- Distinct Coral Response Patterns
- Six coral response “clusters” were observed depending on depth, wave exposure, and recovery rate.
- Some corals showed resilience, but many collapsed under repeated stress.
- Limits of Local Efforts
- Restoration methods like coral gardening provide short-term relief.
- Long-term survival depends on global emission cuts to slow warming and allow recovery time.
Causes of Coral Depletion
- Rising Sea Temperatures
- Ocean warming disrupts coral–algae symbiosis, causing bleaching.
- El Niño events exacerbate stress, making bleaching more frequent.
- Ocean Acidification
- Increased CO? lowers ocean pH, weakening calcium carbonate skeletons.
- Reduced skeletal strength makes corals more fragile and slows growth.
- Pollution & Sedimentation
- Runoff from agriculture and sewage fosters algal blooms, smothering corals.
- Coastal development increases sedimentation, blocking sunlight needed for photosynthesis.
- Human Activities
- Dynamite and cyanide fishing destroy reefs.
- Tourism-related anchoring, snorkeling, and diving add further stress.
Implications of Coral Decline
- Biodiversity Loss
- Coral reefs support ~25% of marine life.
- Collapse threatens fish populations, marine food webs, and species survival.
- Economic Impact
- Reduced reef fisheries affect food security.
- Coral bleaching diminishes eco-tourism, affecting local livelihoods.
- Coastal Vulnerability
- Reefs act as natural seawalls.
- Their loss increases risks from storm surges, erosion, and sea-level rise—critical for islands like Lakshadweep.
- Loss of Scientific Potential
- Many coral-associated species could hold biomedical value (anti-cancer, anti-arthritis compounds).
- Decline erodes opportunities for future discoveries.
- Climate Regulation
- Corals aid in carbon cycling and water purification.
- Their death accelerates algal blooms and weakens ocean-based carbon sinks.
Global and National Initiatives
- International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI): Partnership for global reef conservation.
- Global Fund for Coral Reefs (GFCR): Finance platform mobilizing grants and investments.
- Biorock Technology: Mineral accretion method for coral restoration (trialed in Gulf of Kachchh).
- Super Corals: Human-assisted evolution to breed heat-resistant strains.
- Cryomesh Technology: Preserving coral larvae at ultra-low temperatures for long-term conservation.
- Indian Efforts: Coral monitoring in Gulf of Mannar, Andaman & Nicobar, and Lakshadweep under various MoEFCC and research institute programs.
The Way Forward
- Tackling Climate Change
- Shift to renewable energy, strengthen climate finance, and uphold Paris Agreement targets.
- Protect blue carbon ecosystems like mangroves and seagrasses that support reefs.
- Reducing Local Stressors
- Strengthen wastewater treatment and reduce runoff.
- Enforce marine protected areas (MPAs) and ban destructive fishing practices.
- Active Reef Restoration: Transplant heat-tolerant corals, deploy 3D-printed reef structures, and promote artificial reef habitats.
- Community-Led Conservation
- Promote eco-tourism with reef-safe practices.
- Provide alternative livelihoods to reduce overfishing pressure.
Conclusion
The Lakshadweep study is a warning that coral reefs are reaching a tipping point. Local interventions, while important, cannot offset the pace of climate-driven destruction. Without urgent global emission cuts, India risks losing not only its reef ecosystems but also the livelihoods, biodiversity, and coastal resilience they sustain. A mix of global climate action, national policies, technological innovation, and community participation is essential to secure the future of reefs.