In News:

A global study published in Nature Cities has revealed that India has the highest number of slum clusters in flood-prone areas worldwide, underscoring the nexus between rapid urbanisation, poverty, and increasing climate-related risks. This trend highlights both developmental and governance challenges for India as it seeks to balance inclusive growth with climate resilience.

Global Trends in Flood Risk and Slum Settlements

• India at the Forefront: Over 158 million slum dwellers live in flood-prone areas in India, particularly in the Ganga delta. Nearly 40% of slum residents inhabit high-risk urban and peri-urban zones.
• Regional Pattern: India is followed by Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan in terms of vulnerable populations. Globally, slum dwellers are 32% more likely to reside in floodplains than other communities.
• Global South Impact: About 33% of informal settlements in low- and middle-income countries are already exposed to flooding. Hotspots include Rwanda, Morocco, and coastal Brazil.
• Cities at Risk: High slum density correlates with flood-prone megacities such as Mumbai and Jakarta.

Drivers of Flood Vulnerability in India

• Riverine Floods: Frequent in the Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Krishna basins, driven by monsoon rains, snowmelt, and dam-related issues.
• Urban Expansion: Between 1985–2015, India ranked third globally in urban growth into flood-prone areas. Cities like Mumbai and Bengaluru have expanded into natural floodplains.
• Flash Floods: Incidents rose from 132 (2020) to 184 (2022), with severe events in Himachal Pradesh (2025), Wayanad (2024), Ladakh (2024), and Sikkim (2023).
  • 75% of flash floods stem from a mix of extreme rainfall and saturated soils.
• Climate Change: Between 1981–2020, extreme rainfall events doubled, with monsoon rains intensifying by 56%, raising flood frequency.
• Poor Drainage & Encroachments: Urban floods in Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Chennai worsened by clogged drains and plastic waste (e.g., Chennai floods 2015).
• Weak Local Planning: Absence of region-specific flood risk assessments hampers effective urban land-use planning and disaster preparedness.

Slums in India: Extent and Challenges

• Definitions:
  • Pranab Sen Committee (2010) – compact settlements of ≥20 households with poor housing, sanitation, and water facilities.
  • UN-Habitat – lack of durable housing, secure tenure, sufficient living space, safe water, or sanitation.
• Census 2011: 17% of urban India lived in 1.39 crore slum households.
• NSSO 2012: 33,510 slums identified nationwide.
• Hotspot States: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
• Major Cities: Mumbai and Kolkata host some of the densest slum populations.
• Regulation: The Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956 governs slum rehabilitation in Union Territories; “Land” and “Colonisation” are State subjects.

Existing Initiatives

• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U): Pucca houses with amenities; as of Dec 2024, 118.64 lakh houses sanctioned, 29 lakh for slum dwellers.
• AMRUT & Smart Cities Mission: Infrastructure upgrades in water, sanitation, and drainage.
• Swachh Bharat Mission – Urban 2.0: Target of garbage-free cities.
• IFLOWS-Mumbai and CFLOWS-Chennai: Integrated flood warning systems.

Way Forward: Towards Sustainable Urban Flood and Slum Management

• Region-Specific Flood Strategies: Based on topography and soil; integrate into the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP).
• Restrict Expansion into Floodplains: Enforce zoning laws and incorporate flood-resilient infrastructure under Smart Cities Mission.
• Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS): Rain gardens, permeable pavements, and green spaces.
• Upgrading Slums: Use PMAY-U for resilient housing, raised plinths, and better drainage.
• Data-Driven Risk Mapping: Use NRSC, IMD, and satellite imagery to monitor risks and emerging hotspots.
• Sponge City Model: Adopt Shanghai-style rainwater absorption systems; Mumbai has begun implementing this.
• Eco-Restoration of Water Bodies: Revive urban lakes/wetlands (e.g., Jakkur Lake in Bengaluru) for natural flood control.
• Climate Adaptation Mainstreaming: Integrate climate resilience into urban planning and housing policies.

Conclusion

India’s dual challenge of informal urbanisation and intensifying floods poses a direct threat to sustainable urban development. As the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) approach, urgent focus is needed on SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 1 (No Poverty).
Strengthening governance, upgrading slum infrastructure, and integrating climate resilience into planning are critical to safeguard millions living at the intersection of poverty and environmental risk.

Background – The Legal Framework on Surrogacy in India

India has been a global hub for assisted reproductive technologies (ART) and surrogacy for many years. To address ethical concerns, prevent exploitation, and regulate practices, Parliament enacted two laws in 2021:

• The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021
• The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021

These Acts, effective from January 2022, prohibit commercial surrogacy and allow only altruistic surrogacy (where a woman volunteers without financial compensation, apart from medical expenses and insurance).

Key Provisions:

• Age limits:
  • Married woman (intending mother): 23–50 years
  • Married man (intending father): 26–55 years
  • Single women: only widows or divorcees aged 35–45 years
• Certificate of essentiality: Proof of infertility, parentage order, and insurance for the surrogate are mandatory.
• Purpose of the law: To prevent commodification of reproduction, ensure surrogacy is used only for genuine medical necessity, and safeguard the health of both surrogate and child.

The Case before the Supreme Court

Recently, the Supreme Court reserved judgment in a set of petitions challenging the age caps under these Acts.

Petitioners’ Concerns:

• Many couples had already begun fertility procedures before January 2022, but became ineligible midway due to the new law.
• Example: A couple aged 62 (husband) and 56 (wife) lost their only child in 2018, started fertility treatment in 2019, but after a failed embryo transfer in 2022, they were barred from further surrogacy attempts due to age restrictions.
• They argue that applying the age limits retrospectively is unfair, as no “grandfather clause” was provided to protect ongoing cases.

Constitutional Arguments:

• Article 14 (Right to Equality): Age-based exclusion is arbitrary.
• Article 21 (Right to Life & Personal Liberty): Reproductive autonomy and the right to family are integral to personal liberty.
• Discrimination against unmarried women: The law only allows widows and divorcees to access surrogacy, excluding single, never-married women.

Government’s Stand

• Age limits reflect natural reproductive timelines and medical safety.
• Advanced parental age poses risks:
  • Higher complications for the surrogate.
  • Genetic/epigenetic risks for the child.
  • Concerns about parents’ ability to provide long-term care.
• Provisions align with international best practices in reproductive health.

Supreme Court’s Observations

The Bench, led by Justices B.V. Nagarathna and K.V. Viswanathan, raised critical questions:

• Why prohibit surrogacy at advanced ages when natural late pregnancies are not barred?
• The intent of the law was to regulate commercial surrogacy, not to deny genuine parenthood.
• The absence of compassionate transitional provisions is problematic: “Stop, no children! Look how harsh it is,” remarked Justice Nagarathna.

Ethical and Social Dimensions

• Balancing Autonomy and State Regulation:Reproductive choice vs. state’s role in safeguarding health and welfare.
• Rights of Single Women:Exclusion of unmarried women raises concerns of gender equality and individual autonomy.
• Best Interests of the Child:Child’s welfare, upbringing, and stability are central concerns in surrogacy regulation.
• Medical Ethics:Need to prevent exploitation of surrogates and maintain ethical standards in ART practices.

Broader Constitutional Questions

• Right to Parenthood as a Fundamental Right? The Court has earlier recognised reproductive rights as part of Article 21.
• Equality vs. Reasonable Classification: Can the state justify different treatment based on age or marital status?
• Legislative Gaps: The lack of a grandfather clause highlights issues in legislative foresight and transitional justice.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s verdict will be pivotal in shaping India’s approach to assisted reproduction. At stake is the balance between medical ethics, legislative intent, and individual reproductive rights.

The outcome may not only determine the fate of couples stuck mid-process but could also set precedents for:

• Expanding reproductive rights,
• Recognising unmarried women’s autonomy
• Ensuring compassionate legal transitions in sensitive health matters.

Introduction

As India advances toward becoming a super-aged society by the middle of this century, the focus must shift from merely increasing lifespan to enhancing healthspan—the period of life spent in good health. Recognising this, the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, launched a pioneering research initiative titled BHARAT (Biomarkers of Healthy Aging, Resilience, Adversity, and Transitions). It aims to map physiological, genetic, environmental, and socio-economic indicators that define healthy ageing in the Indian context.

The Need for India-Specific Healthy Ageing Parameters

Global research in ageing has largely been Western-centric, leading to the development of diagnostic thresholds, biomarkers, and treatment regimes based on non-Indian populations. This lack of contextual relevance often results in misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatments in countries like India. For instance, biomarkers such as cholesterol, vitamin D, or C-reactive protein (CRP) may exhibit different baseline levels among Indians due to genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors, but are often interpreted using Western standards.

Furthermore, while life expectancy has increased globally, the incidence of age-related disorders like Parkinson’s and dementia is projected to rise sharply in India—by 168% and 200%, respectively, by 2050. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify early biomarkers that can predict organ deterioration before the onset of overt disease.

BHARAT Study: Objectives and Methodology

BHARAT is part of IISc’s Longevity India Programme, and seeks to establish a Bharat Baseline—a reference for what is physiologically normal for the Indian population across age groups. It will build a comprehensive, multidimensional database that includes:

• Genomic biomarkers (genetic predisposition to diseases)
• Proteomic and metabolic profiles (pathway-level health indicators)
• Environmental and lifestyle factors (pollution exposure, dietary habits)

Crucially, it acknowledges that chronological age does not always match biological age, and seeks to develop more nuanced, organ-specific age markers that could enable preventive and personalised interventions.

Role of Artificial Intelligence

Given the complexity and volume of biological and lifestyle data, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning models are essential tools in this initiative. These technologies will aid in pattern recognition, risk prediction, and simulation of intervention outcomes, ultimately helping researchers select the most effective strategies before launching costly human trials.

Challenges and the Way Ahead

India’s vast genetic, geographic, and socio-economic diversity presents both opportunities and challenges. The BHARAT team faces hurdles such as:

• Difficulty in recruiting healthy adult volunteers
• Securing long-term public and private funding
• Scaling the study to ensure pan-India representation

However, the potential impact is profound. By building an India-specific ageing dataset, BHARAT can influence the development of better diagnostics, public health policies, and preventive healthcare systems for an ageing population.

Conclusion

The BHARAT study marks a critical shift in India’s biomedical research priorities, focusing not only on longevity but on quality of life during ageing. As India prepares to navigate the challenges of demographic transition, initiatives like BHARAT will be instrumental in creating a resilient, inclusive, and health-aware society, rooted in evidence that reflects its own people.

In News:

India is undergoing a demographic transition, with its senior citizen population (aged 60+) currently at 15 crore, projected to rise to 32 crore by 2050. This unprecedented ageing poses socio-economic challenges, especially in urban areas like Bengaluru, where shrinking family structures leave many elderly citizens isolated and purposeless. To address these concerns, a new sector—age-tech—is emerging, leveraging technology to support the physical, emotional, and cognitive well-being of the elderly.

Understanding Age-Tech and its Role

Age-tech refers to technology-driven solutions tailored to the elderly’s needs. Bengaluru has emerged as a hub of innovation in this domain. Platforms like Sukoon Unlimited, founded in 2024, create communities where seniors engage in emotional counselling, volunteering, group therapies, and concierge services. Notably, both service providers and receivers are senior citizens, fostering peer support and a sense of purpose. Sukoon’s community has grown from 200 to 6,000 members across 400 towns in a year.

Technology is also being used to combat loneliness. WHO in 2022 highlighted that one in four older adults suffers from social isolation, increasing mortality risk. AI-powered conversational tools are being employed by platforms like Sukoon to provide companionship in over 100 languages.

Employment and Purpose in Silver Years

Age-tech also facilitates post-retirement employment. Wisdom Circle, for instance, connects retired professionals with employers seeking experienced talent. With 95,000 users and 1,500 companies onboard, it promotes hybrid and part-time roles. Beyond financial gain, seniors are driven by the need for relevance and contribution to society—many even apply for lower-paid or non-profit roles.

Addressing Cognitive and Physical Health

The cognitive health of seniors is another pressing concern. Over 80 lakh Indians currently suffer from dementia. Ivory, a cognitive health start-up, offers neuroscience-backed assessments to detect risks early and recommends personalized brain training. It has over 30,000 users, predominantly women from urban areas.

Orthopaedic health is also crucial. Around 50% of seniors need assistance with basic mobility. TransleadMedtech, an IISc-incubated start-up, has developed assistive chairs and commodes to aid mobility without power sources. With rising knee replacements, such innovations are critical for safety and dignity in ageing.

Challenges and the Digital Divide

Despite potential, age-tech faces hurdles. Experts warn that over-engineering tech can alienate elderly users. Solutions must be designed with the user’s needs, not just tech potential, in mind. The urban-rural divide is stark—most services target urban, financially independent seniors, excluding rural and low-income populations.

Additionally, rapid digitisation has excluded many elderly from essential services like transport and e-commerce. Digital illiteracy also exposes them to scams. Startups like Elderra work to bridge this gap by training seniors in basic digital tools.

Way Forward

For age-tech to become inclusive, the government must play an enabling role. Public-private partnerships can make these services affordable and accessible. Ageing with dignity should be a national priority, combining technology, policy, and empathy to ensure India’s elderly are not left behind in the digital era.

In News:

India has been witnessing significant demographic changes due to decades of family planning policies. This has led to declining fertility rates in certain States, particularly in the southern and smaller northern regions.

Introduction: Demographic Shift in India

• Southern States’ Fertility Trends: States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana have fertility rates below the replacement level (around 1.4–1.5), while Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh have higher fertility rates (2.6–3).
• Ageing Population: Southern States face the challenge of an ageing population, with Kerala projected to have 22.8% of its population aged 60+ by 2036, while Bihar will have only 11%.

Economic and Health Impact of Population Decline

• Economic Consequences:
  • Dependency Ratio: The old-age dependency ratio (the number of elderly for every 100 working-age individuals) has increased significantly in some States. Kerala, for example, had a ratio of 26.1 in 2021, signaling a crisis point.
  • Loss of Demographic Dividend: States with declining fertility rates face the loss of a demographic dividend, i.e., the economic benefit from a large working-age population, which is increasingly burdened by elderly dependents.
  • Health Expenditure: Rising healthcare costs, especially for cardiovascular diseases in southern States, will strain public health systems. The southern States, although comprising one-fifth of India's population, spent 32% of the country’s total out-of-pocket expenditure on cardiovascular diseases in 2017-18.
• Challenges of Low Fertility:
  • Declining Labour Force Participation: Policies encouraging higher fertility may also reduce women’s labour force participation, undermining the economic growth of these States.
  • Economic Pressures: Southern States, despite higher tax contributions, face a diminished share of central resources due to slower population growth. This is a point of concern in inter-State fiscal relations.

Political Implications of Uneven Population Growth

• Impact on Federal Structure:
  • The uneven population growth across States will lead to significant changes in the delimitation of constituencies after the current freeze on seat allocation in Parliament expires in 2026.
  • Redistribution of Lok Sabha Seats: Northern States like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar will likely gain more seats, while southern States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh will lose seats due to their declining population shares.
• Challenges in Federal Relations:
  • Southern States’ economic contributions through taxes are disproportionate to the resources they receive from the central pool, leading to growing tensions between high-growth and slow-growth regions.
  • The shift in political power post-delimitation could increase regional disparities, potentially leading to political tensions between States.

Solutions and Policy Recommendations

• Pro-Natalist Policies:
  • Southern States are considering pro-natalist policies to incentivize higher fertility rates. However, such measures have been largely unsuccessful internationally, especially when women’s economic independence and educational choices are restricted.
  • International Experience: Attempts to incentivize childbearing, without addressing broader socio-economic factors like gender equality, have generally failed in other nations. Maternity benefits, gender-neutral parental leave, and childcare support are key to increasing fertility sustainably.
• Gender Equity and Work-Family Balance:
  • Work-family policies that support paid maternity and paternity leaves, affordable childcare, and gender-neutral employment policies are essential to empower women to balance family and career.
  • Studies indicate that countries with higher gender equity have better fertility rates because women are less likely to forgo childbearing for career reasons.
• Increasing Retirement Age:
  • One way to reduce the old-age dependency ratio is to increase the retirement age, which would allow older workers to remain employed longer and support a sustainable economy.
  • Social Security and pension reforms should also be considered to accommodate the ageing workforce and reduce the economic burden on younger generations.
• Managing Migration:
  • Migration policies should be adjusted to manage the influx of economic migrants into southern States, who contribute to the economy but continue to be counted in their home States for fiscal and political purposes.
  • Migration-based policy reforms could address the challenge of an ageing population in states with declining fertility while ensuring equitable resource distribution across States.