In News:

The application of the death penalty in India continues to evoke debate, particularly in light of contrasting verdicts such as those in the 2024 R.G. Kar Medical College case and the Sharon Raj murder case. These cases highlighted the inconsistent application of the 'rarest of rare' doctrine, a judicial principle guiding capital punishment in the country.

Evolution of the 'Rarest of Rare' Doctrine

The debate surrounding the constitutionality and application of the death penalty began with Jagmohan Singh vs. State of Uttar Pradesh (1972). The Supreme Court upheld the death penalty’s constitutionality under Article 21 (Right to Life), ruling that it did not violate Articles 14 (equality before law) or 19 (freedom of speech and expression), despite concerns over lack of sentencing guidelines.

A definitive framework emerged in Bachan Singh vs. State of Punjab (1980), where the apex court held that the death penalty should only be awarded in the 'rarest of rare' cases. However, the Court did not precisely define what constituted "rarest of rare," leaving the interpretation to judicial discretion.

To bring clarity, the Supreme Court in Machhi Singh vs. State of Punjab (1983) outlined five guiding criteria to determine such cases:

1. Manner of the Crime – Exceptionally brutal, grotesque, or shocking to the community.
2. Motive of the Crime – Exhibiting extreme depravity or sadistic intent.
3. Socially Abhorrent Nature – Offenses targeting marginalized individuals or groups.
4. Magnitude of Crime – Cases involving multiple murders or large-scale violence.
5. Victim’s Vulnerability – When victims are children, women, elderly, or otherwise helpless.

Further, in Mithu vs. State of Punjab (1983), the Court struck down Section 303 of the IPC, which mandated the death penalty for life convicts committing murder. The judgment reaffirmed that capital punishment must remain discretionary, emphasizing judicial evaluation of aggravating and mitigating circumstances.

Case Studies: A Reflection of Judicial Discretion

• In the R.G. Kar Medical College case, a female medical trainee was raped and murdered. Despite the brutality, the court ruled that the case did not meet the threshold of 'rarest of rare' and awarded life imprisonment to the convict.
• Conversely, in the Sharon Raj case, a young man was poisoned by his partner in a premeditated act. The court termed it one of the 'rarest of rare' cases and awarded the death penalty, citing the calculated nature and moral depravity of the crime.

These differing verdicts underscore the subjective application of the doctrine, with considerable weight placed on judicial interpretation.

Contemporary Concerns and Legal Developments

While the doctrine aims to preserve the sanctity of life by making the death penalty an exception, its lack of statutory definition and variability in interpretation has invited criticism. In 2022, the Supreme Court referred the issue to a Constitution Bench to explore how sentencing procedures could better accommodate mitigating factors and ensure a "meaningful, real and effective" hearing before sentencing.

Conclusion

The 'rarest of rare' doctrine represents a critical balancing act between justice and retribution in India's legal system. Although it seeks to restrict capital punishment to the most egregious crimes, its ambiguous parameters and judicial discretion often lead to inconsistent outcomes. Going forward, a more standardized and transparent sentencing framework could strengthen judicial credibility and uphold constitutional morality.

Context:

India has adopted sovereign green bonds (SGrBs) as a key strategy to finance its transition to a low-carbon economy. However, these bonds have faced muted demand from investors, limiting the effectiveness of this funding source. Despite efforts to ease participation rules and attract foreign investors, the expected "greenium" (lower borrowing costs) remains weak, leading to funding shortfalls for vital green projects.

What are Sovereign Green Bonds?

Sovereign Green Bonds are issued by the government to raise capital for environmentally sustainable projects such as renewable energy, energy efficiency, and climate resilience. In India, the government established a framework for issuing these bonds in 2022. Since their introduction, India has raised nearly Rs 53,000 crore through eight issuances, with funds primarily allocated to projects like energy-efficient locomotives and metro developments.

Weak Investor Demand

Despite the government's efforts, India's SGrBs have struggled to attract investor interest. A significant issue is the limited greenium, which in India has only reached 2–3 basis points, far below the global average of 7–8 basis points. This lack of financial incentive makes these bonds less attractive compared to regular bonds. Additionally, small issue sizes and limited secondary market trading further discourage investors. Many bonds are held to maturity, stifling liquidity and market participation.

Impact on Green Initiatives

The weak demand for SGrBs has directly impacted the funding for critical green projects. Initially, India planned to raise Rs 32,061 crore from SGrB proceeds in 2024-25. However, after weak investor response, the revised estimate was reduced to Rs 25,298 crore, resulting in significant cuts to funding for projects such as grid-scale solar energy. The budget for grid-scale solar projects was slashed from Rs 10,000 crore to just Rs 1,300 crore. As a result, India is increasingly relying on general revenue to fill the funding gap.

Key Areas Affected by Funding Cuts

• Electric Locomotive Manufacturing: Rs 12,600 crore
• Metro Projects: Rs 8,000 crore
• Renewable Energy (including National Green Hydrogen Mission): Rs 4,607 crore
• Afforestation (National Mission for a Green India): Rs 124 crore

Challenges Contributing to Weak Demand

• Lack of Social Impact Funds: India lacks a robust ecosystem of social impact funds and responsible investment mandates, which are present in other markets and drive demand for green bonds.
• Liquidity Issues: Small bond issues and a lack of secondary market trading have made SGrBs less liquid and attractive to investors.
• Higher Yields in Other Investment Avenues: Investors are reluctant to accept the relatively low yields of SGrBs, as they offer little financial advantage over regular bonds.

Way Forward

To improve the attractiveness of SGrBs, India could explore the issuance of sustainability bonds, which fund both green and social projects, attracting a broader base of investors. Additionally, post-issuance transparency is crucial, with detailed allocation and impact reports needed to build investor confidence. The government can also collaborate with multilateral development banks like the World Bank to back its green bonds, enhancing their credibility and attracting investment.

Furthermore, enhancing liquidity and developing a more robust market for green finance are essential steps to ensure that India can achieve its climate goals. With proper strategy and structural changes, India can enhance investor confidence and ensure sustainable funding for its green initiatives.

Context:

India’s Sovereign Green Bonds (SGrBs) are a key instrument to mobilize resources for climate-resilient infrastructure and sustainable development. However, despite their potential, the bonds have struggled to attract robust investor interest, thereby limiting the government’s ability to secure a meaningful greenium—a lower cost of borrowing that typically incentivizes green finance globally.

What are Sovereign Green Bonds?

SGrBs are debt instruments issued by the Government of India to raise capital for projects that contribute to environmental sustainability and low-carbon development. They are part of India’s broader green financing strategy to meet its Net Zero target by 2070. These bonds are issued by the Ministry of Finance, under the oversight of the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA), and are guided by India’s Green Finance Framework, aligned with global green bond principles.

Application of Funds:

The proceeds from SGrBs are earmarked exclusively for green projects, ensuring transparency and impact-based investment. Key sectors financed include:

• Electric Locomotive Manufacturing (largest beneficiary through the Ministry of Railways)
• Urban Mobility: Metro rail and public transport systems
• Renewable Energy: Solar, wind, and the National Green Hydrogen Mission
• Afforestation: Under the National Mission for a Green India
• Grid-Scale Solar Projects, though allocations here have been curtailed due to fiscal constraints

Performance and Allocation Trends:

India raised ?16,000 crore through SGrBs in FY 2022–23 and ?20,000 crore in FY 2023–24. For FY 2024–25, ?16,697 crore has been raised so far. However, due to muted investor demand, the revised fundraising estimate has been reduced from ?32,061 crore to ?25,298 crore. A fiscal gap of ?3,600 crore will be met through general revenue, reflecting limited success in expanding green finance.

Challenges:

• Weak Greenium: Indian SGrBs offer little to no financial advantage over conventional bonds, with greenium as low as 2–3 basis points. Globally, it averages 7–8 basis points, still modest but relatively attractive.
• Low Investor Demand: Several bond auctions witnessed under-subscription. For instance, ?7,443 crore worth of bonds were devolved to primary dealers in recent auctions due to high yield expectations from investors.
• Illiquid Secondary Market: Small issuance sizes and a trend of holding bonds till maturity restrict active trading, deterring market participants.
• Underdeveloped Sustainable Finance Ecosystem: India lacks dedicated ESG funds, responsible investment mandates, or regulatory incentives for green bond investments.

Recommendations:

• Enhance Credit Guarantees: Collaborate with multilateral institutions like the World Bank or IFC to back green bonds, enhancing their creditworthiness.
• Expand Domestic Green Investment Base: Promote ESG-focused mutual funds, offer tax incentives, and establish a regulatory framework to attract long-term green capital.
• Improve Market Liquidity: Increase bond issuance sizes and introduce market-making mechanisms to deepen secondary market activity.
• Leverage Public-Private Partnerships: Engage private players in project implementation to diversify and scale up green investment opportunities.

Conclusion:

India’s Sovereign Green Bonds symbolize a strategic shift toward sustainable development financing. While challenges persist, especially in market participation and pricing incentives, strengthening domestic financial ecosystems and leveraging global support can make green bonds a cornerstone of India’s climate financing roadmap.

In News:

The Supreme Court of India has recently agreed to hear a plea seeking the right to passive euthanasia for rabies patients, citing the exceptional nature of the disease and the absence of a cure. The matter, listed for hearing after two weeks, is poised to test the scope and application of the 2018 passive euthanasia ruling under Article 21 of the Constitution.

Background of the Case

• The petition was filed by the NGO All Creatures Great and Small in 2019, challenging a Delhi High Court order (July 2019) which refused to classify rabies as an exceptional case warranting "death with dignity".
• The Supreme Court issued notice in January 2020 to the Centre and other stakeholders, seeking their response.
• On February 10, 2025, a bench of Justices B.R. Gavai and K. Vinod Chandran agreed to hear the matter after two weeks.

Grounds for the Plea

The NGO has urged the Court to lay down a specific protocol enabling terminally ill rabies patients or their guardians to opt for passive euthanasia under medical supervision. Key arguments include:

• Rabies has a 100% fatality rate once symptoms appear.
• The disease often leads to violent neurological symptoms, requiring patients to be tied or shackled to beds, stripping them of dignity and personal freedom.
• The intense suffering and irreversible nature of rabies, coupled with the lack of any effective treatment, makes it distinct from other terminal conditions.
• The plea seeks the creation of an exceptional legal category for rabies within the framework of the 2018 Supreme Court judgment.

Understanding Euthanasia in India

Definitions:

• Euthanasia literally means “good death” and refers to hastening death to relieve pain and suffering.
• Active Euthanasia involves deliberate acts to cause death (e.g., lethal injection) and remains illegal in India.
• Passive Euthanasia involves withholding or withdrawing life support from terminally ill patients and was legalised in 2018.

Legal Milestone:

• In the Common Cause v. Union of India (2018) case, a five-judge Constitution Bench ruled that the right to die with dignity is a part of the fundamental right to life under Article 21.
• The verdict permitted passive euthanasia and the creation of a “living will”—a legal document allowing patients to refuse life support if in a terminal or vegetative state.

Ethical and Constitutional Dimensions

• The plea raises significant questions about human dignity, bodily autonomy, and the limits of state intervention in end-of-life decisions.
• It also brings focus to judicial responsibility in expanding fundamental rights, especially in the context of terminal, untreatable illnesses.

Conclusion

The outcome of this case could have far-reaching implications on medical jurisprudence and the ethics of end-of-life care in India. If the Court recognizes rabies as an exception, it may set a precedent for disease-specific passive euthanasia protocols, expanding the practical application of the 2018 ruling.

In News:

Despite the expected cooling influence of La Niña, January 2025 became the hottest January on record, with global average surface air temperatures 1.75°C above pre-industrial levels (1850–1900), according to the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S). This marked the 18th out of the last 19 months that global temperatures exceeded the 1.5°C threshold. The inability of La Niña to curb this warming trend underscores the intensifying impact of anthropogenic climate change.

Understanding La Niña and the ENSO Cycle

La Niña, meaning "The Little Girl" in Spanish, is the cool phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)—a recurring climate phenomenon involving variations in oceanic and atmospheric conditions in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.

• Phases of ENSO:
  • El Niño (warm phase): Warmer ocean temperatures in the eastern Pacific, weakening trade winds and reducing rainfall in the western Pacific.
  • La Niña (cool phase): Colder sea surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific, strengthening trade winds and enhancing rainfall in the western Pacific.
  • Neutral phase: Sea surface temperatures are near average with no dominant anomalies.
• Mechanism: During La Niña, strengthened trade winds push warm surface waters westward, causing cold waters to upwell in the eastern Pacific. This typically results in global cooling.
• ENSO Cycle: These phases occur every 2 to 7 years and influence weather patterns globally. The ENSO cycle leads to sea surface temperature variations between ±1°C to ±3°C from the long-term average.

The 2024–25 La Niña: A Weakened Climate Driver

• Emergence: The current La Niña phase began in December 2024, later than anticipated. Forecasts had expected it around September 2024, giving it insufficient time to strengthen before its typical peak in the Northern Hemisphere winter.
• Intensity: It is projected to be a mild La Niña, reducing its capacity to significantly influence global temperatures.
• Past Events: The most recent La Niña cycle lasted from 2020 to 2023, followed by a strong El Niño through mid-2023.
• Delayed Cooling Effect: The weaker-than-usual La Niña failed to produce the anticipated cooling, surprising scientists. As Julien Nicolas from Copernicus observed, the expected “temporary brake” on global temperatures did not materialize.

Why January 2025 Remained Hot Despite La Niña

• Global Ocean Warming: Oceans have retained higher-than-usual warmth due to long-term climate change, diluting La Niña’s cooling influence.
• Weak La Niña Onset: A late and weak phase meant less disruption to the prevailing warming trend. According to NOAA, La Niña events need more time and intensity to impact temperatures effectively.
• Persistent GHG Emissions: The concentration of greenhouse gases reached record highs in 2024, adding to the Earth's heat burden. Typically, La Niña-induced rains spur vegetation growth and carbon absorption, but weaker rains in this cycle limited that effect.
• Reduced Aerosols: Declines in atmospheric aerosols—due to cleaner air policies—lessened their usual cooling impact. Aerosols scatter solar radiation and influence cloud dynamics, contributing to temperature moderation.

Global and Regional Climatic Impacts of La Niña

Despite its weak intensity, La Niña still shaped regional weather in varied ways:

Asia

• India: Higher monsoon rainfall (July–September) is expected. This boosts rice production but may reduce pulse output in the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
• Southeast Asia: Nations like Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines face increased rainfall—raising flood risks but aiding rice and palm oil yields.

South America

• Southern Brazil, Uruguay, northern Argentina, and southern Bolivia face drought due to reduced rainfall, affecting soybean and maize crops.
• Northern Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and parts of Ecuador and Peru receive excess rain, risking floods.

Africa

• East Africa: Experiences dry conditions in December–January, hampering harvests in February–March.
• Southern Africa: Receives above-average rainfall, benefitting crops like maize, wheat, sorghum, and soybeans.

Oceania

• Australia: Faces heavy rain and possible flooding in its northern and eastern regions.

North America

• Southern US: Experiences dry conditions.
• Northern US, Canada, and Alaska face wetter, stormier weather.

Significance for India

1. Agriculture: Enhanced monsoon rains improve farm productivity, especially rice.
2. Water Resources: Better reservoir levels alleviate water stress.
3. Energy: Increases hydropower potential.
4. Heat Mitigation: Reduces severity of heatwaves compared to El Niño years.

Monitoring & Prediction

• Oceanic Niño Index (ONI): Tracks 3-month average SST anomalies. Values below –0.5°C indicate La Niña.
• Nino-3.4 Index: Confirms ENSO thresholds. Anomalies of ±0.5°C signal event onset; ±1.5°C indicates strong events.
• Tools Used: Satellite data, trade wind strength, and ocean buoys support forecasts. La Niña can be predicted up to two years in advance if preceded by a strong El Niño.

Conclusion:

The 2024–25 La Niña's inability to cool global temperatures highlights a worrisome trend—the diminishing moderating influence of natural climate phenomena. With greenhouse gas emissions continuing to rise and natural cooling cycles weakening, urgent global action is needed to reduce emissions and mitigate climate change impacts.

In News:

Article 22 of the Indian Constitution, enshrined in Part III under Fundamental Rights, provides critical safeguards to individuals against arbitrary arrest and detention. It ensures that liberty is not curtailed without adherence to due process. These rights are applicable to all individuals—citizens and non-citizens—except enemy aliens and those under preventive detention laws.

Key Provisions of Article 22:

• Article 22(1): No person who is arrested shall be detained without being informed of the grounds for such arrest. The arrestee has the right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of their choice.
• Article 22(2): The arrested person must be produced before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours of arrest (excluding travel time). Further detention without magistrate’s approval is unconstitutional.
• Article 22(3): The above protections do not apply to:
  • Enemy aliens.
  • Persons detained under preventive detention laws.
• Article 22(4): Preventive detention cannot exceed three months unless approved by an Advisory Board comprising judges of a High Court.
• Article 22(5): The detained individual must be informed of the grounds of detention and given a chance to make a representation against it.
• Article 22(6): Authorities may withhold facts if disclosure is deemed against public interest.
• Article 22(7): Parliament may prescribe:
  • Circumstances under which detention can extend beyond three months without Advisory Board opinion.
  • Maximum period of detention.
  • Advisory Board procedure.

Supreme Court Ruling: Mandatory Compliance with Article 22(1)

In a recent landmark judgment, the Supreme Court reaffirmed that non-disclosure of grounds of arrest violates Articles 22(1) and 21, rendering such arrests illegal.

A bench comprising Justices A.S. Oka and N.K. Singh ruled that the obligation to inform an arrested person of the grounds of arrest is not a mere formality but a constitutional mandate. Failure to do so deprives the individual of liberty without due process, violating the fundamental rights under Article 21 (Right to Life and Liberty) as well.

Key observations of the Court:

• Communication of Arrest Grounds: The arrested individual must be informed “as soon as may be” after arrest in a language and manner understandable to them. Merely mentioning grounds in the remand report or charge sheet does not satisfy Article 22(1).
• Written Communication Preferred: While not mandatory, providing the grounds of arrest in writing is encouraged to avoid controversy and ensure clarity (as suggested earlier in Pankaj Bansal v. Union of India).
• Duty of Magistrate: At the time of remand, the magistrate must verify if Article 22(1) compliance has occurred. If not, remand is unconstitutional, and the arrest stands vitiated.
• Burden of Proof: If the accused alleges non-compliance, the Investigating Officer bears the burden to prove that Article 22(1) was followed.
• Ground for Bail: Violation of Article 22(1) can itself be a ground for granting bail, even in cases where statutory restrictions exist.
• Communication to Relatives (CrPC Section 50A): Justice Singh emphasized that the grounds of arrest should also be conveyed to friends, relatives, or nominated persons of the arrestee. This facilitates immediate legal recourse to secure release, reinforcing the right to liberty under Article 21.

Conclusion:
The Supreme Court’s judgment marks a crucial reaffirmation of constitutional liberties. It ensures that procedural safeguards under Articles 21 and 22 are not diluted by executive convenience and establishes a higher standard of accountability in the process of arrest and detention in India.

In News:

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has once again become the epicenter of a severe humanitarian and geopolitical crisis. In early 2025, the M23 militia, a Tutsi-led rebel group allegedly backed by Rwanda, captured Goma, the capital of North Kivu province.

This strategic and mineral-rich city lies on the eastern border with Rwanda and has historically been a flashpoint in the region. The recent offensive has escalated the violence, displacing over 7,00,000 people, killing more than 2,900, and risking a wider regional conflict.

Historical Roots of the Conflict

The current instability can be traced back to colonial and post-independence ethnic tensions in the Great Lakes region. Under German and Belgian colonial rule, power structures in Rwanda favored the minority Tutsi population, generating long-standing resentment among the Hutus. Following Rwanda’s independence in 1962, a Hutu-majority government took power, culminating in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, where nearly 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed.

Post-genocide, around 2 million Hutus, including militia members responsible for the killings, fled into eastern Congo (then Zaire), leading to the formation of over 120 armed groups, including the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), a Hutu militia. Rwanda intervened in Congo in 1996 and 1998, triggering the First and Second Congo Wars, which resulted in millions of deaths and regional destabilization.

Emergence and Role of M23

The M23 (March 23 Movement) was formed in 2012 by former fighters of the Tutsi-led National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP), who rebelled after accusing the DRC government of violating a 2009 peace deal meant to integrate them into the national army. Led by SultaniMakenga, M23 initially captured Goma in 2012 but retreated after international pressure.

Resurfacing in 2022, M23 cited non-implementation of the agreement and vowed to protect Tutsi interests against groups like the FDLR. Since then, they have gained control of key mining regions, particularly Rubaya, rich in coltan, a critical mineral used in electronic devices. The UN estimates that M23 earns $800,000 per month from coltan production taxes, indicating that economic motives are as significant as ethnic ones.

The 2025 Escalation

On January 27, 2025, M23 rebels entered Goma and seized control of the airport by the following evening. By January 30, they had captured the city despite sporadic resistance from government forces and allied militias. The group then began advancing southward towards Bukavu, the capital of South Kivu province. The UN has confirmed reports of Rwandan troop incursions into South Kivu, while Burundian forces have joined Congolese troops in resisting the offensive.

Regional Dynamics and Rwanda’s Involvement

The Congolese government, along with the UN and Western powers, accuses Rwanda of backing M23 militarily and logistically. A 2022 UN expert report provided "solid evidence" of Rwandan troops fighting alongside M23, though Rwanda continues to deny these allegations. President Paul Kagame justifies his government's position as defensive, blaming the DRC for its alliance with the FDLR, which threatens Tutsis across the region.

Neighboring Burundi, led by President ÉvaristeNdayishimiye, has warned that Rwanda’s ambitions could spark a wider war, even threatening Burundi’s sovereignty. Uganda, meanwhile, plays a balancing role—supporting Congolese efforts against Islamic State-linked militants, while allegedly allowing M23 safe haven, as per UN reports.

Strategic and Economic Importance of Goma

Goma is not just a city; it is a strategic trade and transport hub at the heart of the DRC’s mineral wealth, particularly coltan, of which the DRC supplies nearly 40% of the world’s demand. The region is crucial for smartphone and electronics manufacturing due to coltan’s utility in capacitors.

Thus, the control of Goma and surrounding territories represents not only a military advantage but also a significant economic resource for M23 and its alleged sponsors.

Humanitarian Impact and Global Concerns

The humanitarian toll of the conflict is staggering. With over a million people displaced since M23’s resurgence, the DRC’s fragile state apparatus is further strained. Corpses reportedly lay unburied in Goma after the assault, reflecting a deep crisis of governance, security, and human rights.

Given the ethnic complexities, resource conflicts, and regional rivalries, there are growing fears of the conflict escalating into a full-fledged regional war, drawing in Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda.

In News:

In a landmark decision during its February 2025 meeting, the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) reduced the repo rate by 25 basis points, from 6.5% to 6.25%, marking the first rate cut in five years (since May 2020). This move follows the Union Government’s recent cut in personal income tax, aimed at boosting consumption.

What is the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)?

The MPC is a six-member statutory body responsible for setting India’s monetary policy. Its primary objective is price stability while ensuring economic growth. It meets bi-monthly to assess economic indicators and modify key policy rates like the repo rate, which influences overall borrowing and lending costs in the economy.

Key Highlights from the MPC Decision:

Repo Rate Cut:

• Reduced to 6.25% from 6.5%.
• Objective: Stimulate credit growth, investment, and consumer demand.
• Expected Impact: Lower EMIs for borrowers, reduced interest rates on EBLR and MCLR-linked loans.

GDP Growth Outlook (FY26):

• RBI projects 6.7% GDP growth for FY26.
• This is slightly higher than the FY25 estimate of 6.4%, and in line with the Economic Survey’s projection of 6.3–6.8%.
• Growth recovery is attributed to calibrated fiscal consolidation and stable private consumption.

Inflation Projections (CPI-based):

• FY26 Inflation Estimate: 4.2%
  • Q1: 4.5%
  • Q2: 4.0%
  • Q3: 3.8%
  • Q4: 4.2%
• CPI inflation had already dropped to 5.22% in December 2024, aided by easing food prices.
• RBI emphasized continued transmission of past policy measures and food price moderation as drivers of disinflation.

Broader Monetary Policy Context

• RBI will maintain a “neutral” policy stance to remain flexible amid evolving macroeconomic conditions.
• RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra stressed that the inflation-targeting framework has helped stabilize prices, especially post-pandemic.
• The policy space was created by the simultaneous drop in inflation and moderate growth, allowing support for the economy without derailing price stability.

Cybersecurity & Digital Measures

• Additional Factor Authentication (AFA) introduced for international digital payments.
• Launch of exclusive domains:
  • "bank.in" for Indian banks
  • "fin.in" for the wider financial sector

These aim to bolster digital transaction security amid rising cyber fraud.

Forex & External Sector Outlook

• RBI reiterated that it does not target exchange rate levels, intervening only to curb excessive volatility.
• Ongoing global challenges include:
  • Strengthening of the US dollar
  • Higher bond yields
  • Geopolitical tensions
  • Threat of trade wars
• These have led to capital outflows, currency depreciation, and increased financial market volatility.

Conclusion

The RBI’s rate cut signals a strategic shift towards supporting economic growth amid global uncertainties. With a moderate inflation outlook and improving macroeconomic indicators, the decision is expected to boost domestic demand and investment, while reinforcing RBI’s commitment to price and financial stability.

In News:

As artificial intelligence (AI) reshapes global economic, strategic, and technological landscapes, the question of whether India should build its own sovereign foundational AI model has gained prominence. Sovereign AI models—developed, trained, and deployed using domestic infrastructure, datasets, and expertise—are now seen as strategic assets, with countries like the US and China already establishing their own. India, however, remains dependent on foreign AI giants such as OpenAI, Google DeepMind, and Meta.

Why India Needs a Sovereign AI Model

1. Data Sovereignty and Security: India generates one of the world’s largest data pools, including sensitive data from healthcare, finance, and governance. Using foreign-built AI models risks privacy breaches and potential misuse. A homegrown model would ensure control over data and ethical AI deployment.

2. Reducing Foreign Dependence: Sovereign AI is crucial for applications in defense, cybersecurity, and governance, where reliance on foreign technology may undermine strategic autonomy. Sanctions or export controls could otherwise disrupt access to essential technologies like GPUs or software updates.

3. Cultural and Linguistic Alignment: Current global AI models are largely English-centric. A sovereign model trained on Indian languages and datasets would bridge the digital divide and make AI more inclusive. Projects like AI4Bharat’s IndicTrans2 and Sarvam AI’s Sarvam-1, a multilingual model built with Nvidia, exemplify this direction.

4. National Security and Innovation: Sovereign AI is essential in military intelligence, predictive security, and surveillance. It also fosters an innovation ecosystem, generating high-skilled jobs and encouraging academic-industry collaboration.

Challenges in Building Foundational AI Models

1. Infrastructure Gaps: India lacks cutting-edge chip manufacturing capabilities. With no agreements with firms like TSMC, India relies on imports of GPUs and processors, unlike countries developing supercomputers (e.g., Denmark’s Gefion, Japan’s AI Grid).

2. High Development Costs: Training a large AI model can cost millions. DeepSeek V3, for instance, cost $5.6 million for a single run, while India’s annual AI R&D budget remains modest compared to Big Tech’s $80 billion.

3. Fragmented Resources: Subsidized GPUs are spread thin across institutions, diluting their impact. Meta’s Llama 4, for example, used large dedicated clusters—unfeasible under current Indian frameworks.

4. Public R&D Inefficiencies: Bureaucratic red tape discourages risk-taking needed in AI research. Unlike flexible spending in firms like OpenAI, Indian R&D lacks autonomy and long-term funding.

Policy Recommendations and Way Forward

• Invest in IndiaAI Mission: Develop a national AI infrastructure with over 10,000 GPUs, secure cloud systems, and supercomputing clusters to train and deploy large-scale models.
• Build DPI for AI Builders: Create datasets, APIs, and platforms to support data annotation, fine-tuning, and delivery in Indian contexts.
• Adopt a Phased Approach: Focus on sovereign models in sensitive sectors (defense, healthcare) while using global open models for non-critical applications.
• Promote Public-Private Collaboration: Forge partnerships with companies like Nvidia or OpenAI for technology transfer and joint ventures.
• Encourage Innovation Under Constraints: India must emulate models like Alibaba or DeepSeek, which succeeded with limited resources and targeted innovations.

Conclusion

Building a sovereign foundational AI model is not merely a technological ambition but a strategic necessity. With coordinated efforts between government, industry, and academia, India can achieve AI self-reliance—ensuring data sovereignty, inclusive growth, and a strong global presence in the AI-driven future.

In News:

In the Union Budget 2025–26, the Finance Minister proposed a significant policy shift by increasing the investment and turnover limits for MSME classification by 2.5 and 2 times respectively. This move is expected to enhance the growth prospects and scalability of India’s micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs).

Economic Significance:

The MSME sector forms the backbone of the Indian economy, contributing 30% to the GDP and nearly 45% to manufacturing output. With over 1 crore registered units employing 7.5 crore people, it is the largest source of non-agricultural employment in the country. It plays a pivotal role in inclusive development, offering livelihood opportunities to the rural, urban poor, and semi-skilled workforce.

The formalization drive has been significant, with over 4 crore MSMEs registered on the Udyam portal by March 2024. Key schemes like PM Vishwakarma Yojana (?13,000 crore) and Mudra Yojana (?5.41 lakh crore disbursed in FY24) have supported artisans and first-time entrepreneurs, particularly women and marginalized communities.

Boost to Trade and Innovation:

MSMEs account for 45.73% of India’s total exports in sectors like textiles, leather, and engineering goods. Their integration into Global Value Chains (GVCs) is being facilitated by reforms in trade logistics, the GeM portal, and PLI schemes. Digital transformation is advancing rapidly, with 72% MSME transactions now digital, supported by platforms like ONDC and the RBI’s Public Tech Platform.

Women and Rural Empowerment:

Women entrepreneurs constitute 20.5% of Udyam registrations, and 68% of Mudra loans benefit them. MSMEs are also catalyzing rural industrialization by promoting agro-processing and curbing rural-urban migration through schemes like the SRI Fund and Animal Husbandry Credit Guarantee Scheme.

Key Challenges:

Despite their potential, MSMEs face critical bottlenecks:

• Credit access remains limited; only 20% of units access formal finance. Payment delays amounting to ?10.7 lakh crore (2022) hinder working capital.
• Regulatory burdens, inadequate infrastructure, and poor digital skills further constrain productivity.
• Low awareness of schemes and limited integration into global ESG standards affect competitiveness.
• The sector remains largely informal, weakening labor rights and policy outreach.

Recent Reforms & Recommendations:

To unlock MSMEs’ potential, a multi-pronged reform strategy is underway:

• Credit Measures: Promotion of cash-flow based lending, expansion of CGTMSE, Vyapar Credit Cards, and enhanced TReDS-GeM integration.
• Ease of Doing Business: Single-window clearances, self-certification, and stronger MSME facilitation councils.
• Digital & Skill Upgradation: Launch of Digital MSME 2.0, apprenticeship hubs, and innovation incubators.
• Market Access: Expansion of cluster-based models, branding support, and ONDC-GeM integration.
• Green MSMEs: ESG-linked credit, circular economy incentives, and green certifications.
• Formalization Push: Linking benefits to Udyam registration, backed by SIDBI-led equity support.

Conclusion:
MSMEs are central to India’s vision of a $5 trillion economy and Viksit Bharat by 2047. With increased investment thresholds, focused policy interventions, and digital empowerment, India can build a resilient, inclusive, and globally competitive MSME ecosystem.

In News:

Geo-economic fragmentation refers to a policy-driven reversal of global economic integration, increasingly shaped by geopolitical alignments. It signifies a shift from globalization to strategically-driven economic blocs, where nations prioritize political alliances over market efficiency.

Key Characteristics

• Emergence of friend-shoring, re-shoring, and economic nationalism.
• Fragmentation of trade, capital flows, FDI, and migration.
• Retreat from multilateralism, with institutions like the WTO and IMF under stress.
• Strategic use of environmental, labor, and social standards by developed countries to impose uniform regulations, causing tensions.

Globalization to Fragmentation: Statistical Evidence

• Trade-to-GDP Ratio: Increased from 39% (1980) to 60% (2012); now threatened by rising protectionism.
• FDI Inflows: Rose from $54 billion (1980) to $1.5 trillion (2019); now increasingly concentrated among like-minded countries.
• Global Economy: Expanded from $11 trillion (1980) to over $100 trillion (2022).
• Trade Restrictions (WTO Report):
  • 2023–24: 169 new measures covering $887.7 billion in trade.
  • 2022–23: Covered $337.1 billion — shows a dramatic rise in protectionism.
• Over 24,000 new trade and investment restrictions imposed globally between 2020–24.

IMF on Costs of GEF

• Trade fragmentation could cause 0.2% to 7% GDP losses, especially for developing countries.
• Current fragmentation is more costly than Cold War era, as trade now constitutes 45% of global GDP (vs. 16% then).
• Less trade = less knowledge diffusion, innovation, and productivity gains.

Strategic Impacts: Global Supply Chains

China’s Dominance

• 80% of global battery manufacturing.
• 80% of solar panel components.
• 60% of wind turbine capacity.
• 70% of global rare earth mineral processing.
• Dominates EV supply chains, critical mineral refining, and clean energy manufacturing.

FDI Realignment

• FDI is increasingly relocating from China to India, Vietnam, Mexico, etc.
• Friend-shoring reduces capital access for emerging markets.
• Emerging economies face reduced FDI, slower growth, and technological decoupling.

India’s Strategic Response: Deregulation and Internal Growth

Policy Recommendations (Economic Survey 2024–25)

• Amplify deregulation to lower compliance costs and boost entrepreneurship.
• Empower SMEs to withstand global shocks and strengthen domestic manufacturing.
• Encourage inter-state learning for best practices in economic governance.
• Redouble efforts to boost exports and foreign investment amidst global volatility.

Rationale

• With the decline of global cooperation, internal engines of growth become crucial.
• Deregulation can unleash innovation, enhance productivity, and ensure resilient growth.
• India's response must be strategic, systematic, and state-inclusive to capitalize on this global transition.

In News:

India's recent coal mining tragedy in Dima Hasao, Assam, underscores the nation's ongoing struggle with illegal and hazardous rat-hole mining, despite the National Green Tribunal's 2014 ban. This persistent exploitation, driven by industrial demand for coal, highlights the gap between environmental regulations and their enforcement, revealing a broader issue of balancing economic growth with environmental protection. As India strives to meet ambitious climate goals and sustain economic development, strengthening environmental regulations becomes critical.

Current Environmental Regulations in India

India has established a strong legal framework to protect its environment, grounded in the Indian Constitution. Articles 48A and 51A(g) direct the state and citizens to safeguard the environment, while Article 21 ensures the right to a clean and healthy environment, as interpreted by the Supreme Court. Key pollution control laws include:

• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Regulates water pollution and establishes pollution control boards at the national and state levels.
• Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: Controls air pollution from industrial emissions and vehicles.
• Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Provides overarching powers for environmental protection.
• Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: Regulates plastic waste disposal and bans single-use plastics.

Other significant laws focus on forest and wildlife protection, including the Indian Forest Act, 1927, and the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, along with the National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010, which ensures quick resolution of environmental disputes.

Key Issues with Enforcement

• Despite these stringent regulations, enforcement remains weak due to institutional limitations. Many industrial units fail to meet environmental standards, with regulatory bodies underfunded and understaffed. For example, pollution control boards in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are plagued by staffing shortages, hampering their ability to monitor pollution effectively.
• Inadequate public participation and insufficient technology adoption further exacerbate these challenges.
• The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process, often bypassed or diluted, leads to development projects being approved without full consideration of their environmental impacts, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas.

Weak Enforcement and Conflict between Development and Conservation

The tension between development and conservation is evident in policies that relax environmental regulations for economic growth. The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, prioritizes infrastructure projects over forest preservation, undermining ecological conservation. Moreover, the rapid urbanization of cities like Gurugram and Faridabad has led to large-scale deforestation and a reduction in natural conservation zones, worsening air and water quality.

Strengthening Environmental Regulations

To address these challenges, India needs to strengthen its environmental regulatory mechanisms:

• Enhance Enforcement: Adequate funding, skilled personnel, and advanced technology, such as AI-based pollution monitoring and drone surveillance, are essential to improve compliance.
• EIA Reforms: The EIA process should be made more transparent and participatory, ensuring that marginalized communities are included in decision-making.
• Promote Clean Energy: Expanding subsidies for renewable energy and encouraging industries to adopt green technologies will help reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
• Circular Economy: Encouraging industries to adopt recycling and upcycling practices can minimize waste and reduce resource extraction.
• Strengthen Local Involvement: Empowering local communities through decentralization under the Forest Rights Act will ensure more inclusive environmental governance.

Conclusion

India’s environmental challenges require a balanced approach, integrating sustainable development with robust environmental protections. Strengthening regulatory enforcement, reforming the EIA process, and fostering community-led conservation are essential to aligning economic growth with environmental sustainability. By addressing these gaps, India can better navigate its path toward achieving both its development goals and climate commitments.

In News:

The President of Indonesia, visited India as the Chief Guest for the 76th Republic Day in January 2025. This marked the 75th anniversary of diplomatic ties, reaffirming the commitment to deepen cooperation in economic, strategic, cultural, and defense domains.

Historical Foundations

• Ancient Civilizational Links: Trade and cultural exchanges date back to the 2nd century BCE, reflected in the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism on Indonesian society (e.g., Ramayana, Mahabharata, Borobudur, Prambanan).
• Modern Diplomatic Ties:
  • Formalized in 1950, with a Treaty of Friendship in 1951.
  • Collaborated in the 1955 Bandung Conference and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement (1961).
  • Indonesia’s first President Sukarno was the Guest of Honour at India’s first Republic Day in 1950.
• Cold War and Beyond:
  • Relations cooled in the 1960s but revived in the 1980s.
  • The 1991 'Look East' Policy and the 2014 'Act East' Policy revitalized ties.
  • Strategic Partnership in 2005; upgraded to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2018.

Key Pillars of Cooperation

• Economic and Trade Relations
  • Trade Volume: Reached USD 38.8 billion (2022–23), targeted to increase to USD 50 billion by 2025.
  • Key Imports: India imports coal, palm oil, and nickel.
  • Investment: Indian investments in Indonesia total USD 1.56 billion in infrastructure, textiles, and energy.
• New Developments:
  • MoU on Local Currency Settlement Systems to reduce dependency on USD.
  • Focus on resolving trade barriers via forums like WGTI and BMTF.
  • Cooperation in critical minerals like nickel and bauxite.
  • BPCL to invest USD 121 million in the Nunukan gas block.
• Military Exercises: Garuda Shakti (Army), Samudra Shakti (Navy), and participation in Milan, Komodo, Super Garuda Shield, etc.
• Key Agreements:
  • 2018 Defense Cooperation Agreement.
  • White Shipping Information Exchange (WSIE).
  • Proposal for Bilateral Maritime Dialogue and Cyber Security Dialogue.
  • Joint vision on maritime cooperation under SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region).
  • BrahMos Deal: Talks underway for Indonesia’s acquisition of BrahMos missiles (~USD 450 million).
• Cultural Diplomacy: Shared heritage of Hindu-Buddhist traditions; India assisting in restoring Prambanan temple.
• Tourism & Connectivity: Direct flights since 2023; India is the second-largest source of tourists to Bali.
• New Initiatives:
  • Cultural Exchange Programme (2025–2028).
  • India reaffirmed the Kashi Cultural Pathway for heritage restoration and repatriation of artifacts.
• Science, Technology, and Space
  • ISRO supports Indonesia’s satellite ambitions; agreement on Biak Tracking Station.
  • Renewed MoU on STEM cooperation.
  • Areas of collaboration: Quantum tech, high-performance computing, and digital public infrastructure.
• Energy and Health Security
  • Collaboration on biofuels under the Global Biofuels Alliance.
  • Joint initiatives on mid-day meals and public distribution systems.
  • MoUs on digital health, capacity building, and traditional medicine.

Multilateral and Regional Cooperation

• ASEAN & Indo-Pacific: Commitment to ASEAN centrality and cooperation through IPOI, India-Indonesia-Australia Trilateral, and ASEAN-India outlook.
• Global Platforms: Collaboration in BRICS, G20, IORA, and advocacy for the Global South.
• Climate & Disaster Resilience:
  • Joint efforts under CDRI.
  • Indonesia invited to the International Solar Alliance and Big Cat Alliance.

Key Challenges

• Trade Imbalance: Heavy reliance on limited imports (coal, palm oil); imbalance persists as Indonesia’s trade with China is far greater (~USD 139 billion).
• Bureaucratic & Regulatory Barriers: Slow progress on infrastructure and investment due to permit and regulatory issues.
• Geopolitical Pressures: Indo-Pacific instability and China's expanding influence pose strategic challenges.
• Logistical Constraints: Inadequate connectivity infrastructure hinders deeper integration.

Way Forward

• Trade Diversification: Include sectors like tech, agriculture, and green energy.
• Defense Deepening: Expand joint exercises, maritime patrols, and intelligence-sharing.
• Enhance Connectivity: Boost air, sea, and digital linkages for trade and tourism.
• Green Collaboration: Advance renewable energy and sustainable mining ventures.
• Cultural & Educational Engagement: Promote student exchanges, scholarships (e.g., ITEC), and diaspora involvement.

Conclusion

India and Indonesia share deep-rooted civilizational links and are strategically aligned in the Indo-Pacific. Their evolving Comprehensive Strategic Partnership encompasses trade, defense, technology, and cultural diplomacy. Strengthening this partnership will not only boost bilateral growth but also ensure a stable, multipolar, and cooperative regional order.

In News:

A recent State Bank of India (SBI) report highlights the evolving trends in investment activity and the increasing importance of External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs) in financing India's economic growth. It also reflects rising private sector participation and a robust capital formation trend.

Investment Trends in India:

• Total Investment Announcements reached ?32.01 lakh crore during April–December 2024 (9MFY25), up 39% from the same period in FY24.
• The private sector accounted for 70% of investments in 9MFY25, up from 56% in FY24, indicating rising business confidence.
• Gross block of Indian corporates rose to ?106.5 lakh crore (March 2024), from ?73.94 lakh crore in March 2020—an addition of over ?8 lakh crore annually.
• Capital Work in Progress stood at ?13.63 lakh crore, reflecting ongoing infrastructure and industrial projects.
• Household Net Financial Savings (HNFS) improved to 5.3% of GDP in FY24 from 5.0% in FY23.
• Investment-to-GDP ratio improved, with:
  • Government investment at 4.1% of GDP (FY23) — highest since FY12.
  • Private corporate investment rising to 11.9% in FY23, projected to reach 12.5% in FY24.

What are External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs)?

ECBs refer to loans raised by Indian entities from foreign lenders, including commercial banks, export credit agencies, and institutional investors. These borrowings are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and used for purposes like capital expansion, modernization, and infrastructure development.

Current Status of ECBs (as of Sept–Nov 2024):

• Outstanding ECBs stood at $190.4 billion (Sept 2024).
  • Private sector share: 63% (~$97.6 billion).
  • Public sector share: 37% (~$55.5 billion).
• Of the total, non-Rupee and non-FDI ECBs accounted for $154.9 billion.
• ECBs registered (April–Nov 2024): $33.8 billion, mainly for capital goods import, local capex, and new projects.
• Cost of ECBs declined to:
  • 6.6% average during April–November 2024.
  • 5.8% in November 2024, down by 71 basis points from the previous month.
• Hedging practices: Private companies hedge about 74% of their ECB exposure, essential for managing currency risk.

Why Are ECBs Important for India?

• Bridging Capital Gaps: Domestic markets may not meet the capital needs of large projects.
• Lower Interest Rates: ECBs often offer cheaper financing than domestic loans.
• Infrastructure Financing: Key source of funds for sectors needing long-term investment.
• Foreign Exchange Access: Supports imports, modernization, and technology adoption.
• Private Sector Expansion: Enables firms to grow, diversify, and remain globally competitive.

Challenges and Risks:

• Currency Risk: Rupee depreciation can raise repayment costs.
• Interest Rate Risk: Linked to global rates (e.g., LIBOR/SOFR), which can rise unpredictably.
• Hedging Costs: Though necessary, hedging adds to borrowing costs.
• Global Dependency: Exposure to international financial volatility.
• Regulatory Constraints: RBI norms on end-use, maturity, and cost ceilings can reduce flexibility.
• Over-Borrowing Risk: Mismanagement can lead to unsustainable debt levels and strain forex reserves.

Clarification on ECB Liability Data:

• Some media reports mistakenly cited India’s ECB stock as $273 billion.
• The actual ECBs, as per RBI (Sept 2024), stand at $190.4 billion.
• The inflated figure includes $72 billion in FPI (Debt), which should not be classified as ECBs.

Way Forward:

• Regulatory Refinement: Simplify ECB rules for strategic sectors and long-term projects.
• Encourage Hedging: Make risk management more affordable and accessible.
• Prudent Borrowing: Promote ECBs for infrastructure, exports, and modernization rather than working capital.
• Monitoring and Oversight: Ensure transparency and prevent over-leverage.
• Strengthen Domestic Financing: To reduce overdependence on foreign borrowing.

In News:

The Indian judiciary is grappling with an unprecedented backlog of cases, while India’s digital economy is witnessing exponential growth, promising to be a key driver of future economic expansion. Simultaneously, India's strides in the space sector and emerging technologies signal its increasing role as a global innovator.

The Crisis of Judicial Pendency in India

• Background: The Supreme Court recently permitted High Courts to appoint ad-hoc retired judges under Article 224A to address the mounting pendency of cases. This move revives a constitutional provision that had remained dormant, with only three recorded instances of its use.
• Scale of Backlog:
  • As of January 2025, over 62 lakh cases are pending in High Courts.
  • Nearly 4 crore cases are pending in subordinate courts.
  • 30% of High Court judicial positions remain vacant.
• Reasons for Pendency

• Insufficient Judicial Strength: Low judge-to-population ratio.
• Infrastructure Deficit: Poor court facilities, especially in rural areas.
• Administrative Delays: Outdated systems and slow bureaucratic processing.
• Rising Litigation: Increase in public awareness and socio-economic issues.
• Adjournments & Procedural Delays: Inefficient court practices.
• Vacancies in Appointments: Delay in filling judicial posts due to the standoff between executive and judiciary.

Constitutional Provision: Article 224A

• Enables High Courts to appoint retired judges temporarily with the President’s consent.
• Judges appointed under this article have full powers and jurisdiction of a regular High Court judge.
• Supreme Court in Lok Prahari v. Union of India (2021) provided guidelines for such appointments, including limiting it to instances where judicial vacancies are not more than 20%.

Judicial Appointments Debate: Collegium vs. NJAC

• Collegium System
  • CJI + Four senior-most judges decide appointments.
  • Criticized for lack of transparency, nepotism, and non-accountability.
• National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)
  • Proposed inclusion of judiciary, executive, and civil society (2 eminent persons).
  • Struck down by SC in 2015 to preserve judicial independence.
• Current Debate: Rising demands for a reformed NJAC to bring in accountability while retaining independence.

Global Models of Judicial Appointments

Country                  System                           Key Feature

UK                     Judicial Appointments Commission                 Transparent, includes laypersons

South Africa     Judicial Service Commission                            Diverse representation: judiciary, politicians, academics

France                High Council of Judiciary                                Balanced approach with civil society input

Impacts of Judicial Delay

• Delayed Justice: Undermines public trust.
• Overcrowded Prisons: Over 70% of inmates are undertrials; prisons operate at 114% capacity.
• Economic Costs: Delays in dispute resolution hamper business environment and economic efficiency.
• Judicial Burnout: Overburdened judges impact quality of judgments.

Addressing Judicial Pendency

• Short-Term Measures
  • Appointment of Ad-Hoc Judges under Article 224A.
  • Fast Track Courts for specific offenses (e.g., crimes against women, corruption).
• Long-Term Reforms
  • Reforming Judicial Appointments: Transparent and accountable system through restructured NJAC.
  • Enhancing Collegium Transparency: Clear criteria and public disclosure.
  • Promoting ADR Mechanisms: Arbitration, mediation, and conciliation to reduce court burden.
  • Judicial Infrastructure Development: More courtrooms, modern facilities, and digitalization.

Way Forward

Judicial Reform

• Strengthen judicial accountability while maintaining independence.
• Incorporate global best practices in appointment systems.
• Promote Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) and digitization of court processes

Urban India at a Crossroads

India's urban population is projected to reach 40% by 2030, up from 30% in 2011. While this urban surge brings opportunities for economic and social progress, it also amplifies challenges such as:

• Infrastructure strain
• Environmental degradation
• Social inequality
• Climate impacts—including increased frequency of floods, heatwaves, and climate-driven migration

Traditionally, governments have relied on a combination of policy reforms, infrastructure investment, and technological advancements. However, a crucial component is often overlooked: behavioral change.

The Case for Behavioral Change in Urban Governance

Urban planning and service delivery frequently overlook how citizen and provider behavior shapes outcomes. Sustained, meaningful change requires more than just awareness campaigns—it demands behaviorally-informed governance. Here's why:

• Enhancing Service Delivery: Cities like Indore showcase how behavior change can revolutionize urban systems. Once struggling with waste management, Indore became India’s cleanest city through:
  • Door-to-door campaigns
  • Strict enforcement of segregation rules
  • Viral initiatives like the ‘Kachra Gadi’ song to shift mindsets
• Driving Sustainability: In cities like Delhi, the odd-even vehicle rule led to a 30% reduction in traffic congestion by using simple default behavioral triggers. When people opt for public transport or energy conservation, it reduces emissions and eases city operations.
• Improving Public Safety: Behavioral strategies also improve law enforcement and community trust. For instance, Kerala’s ‘Janamaithri Suraksha’ program emphasizes empathetic policing, resulting in stronger police-citizen relations.
• Boosting Institutional Efficiency: Embedding behavioral insights can improve the efficiency of government schemes. The NITI Aayog’s Behavioral Insights Unit and initiatives in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar demonstrate success in using nudges to improve outcomes in areas like maternal health and welfare delivery.

Why Cities need Chief Behavioral Officers (CBOs)

To embed these insights systematically, Indian cities must institutionalize behavioral science through dedicated roles like Chief Behavioral Officers (CBOs) within Urban Local Bodies.

CBO Functions:

• Integrate behavioral strategies into urban planning
• Design evidence-backed nudges and campaigns
• Collaborate with stakeholders, municipal officers, and researchers
• Guide data-driven policy experimentation

Support Structure:

• A small team of behavioral fellows
• Annual Behavioral Plans aligned with city goals
• Investment in citizen engagement platforms
• Use of big data and surveys to uncover behavioral bottlenecks

Examples from global cities like New Orleans (via What Works Cities) show that CBOs can drive change quickly and cost-effectively.

Challenges to Behaviorally-Informed Urbanism

Despite its promise, this approach faces several roadblocks:

• Cultural inertia and resistance to change (e.g., reluctance in waste segregation)
• Lack of training in behavioral science among officials
• Resource constraints in smaller municipalities
• Fragmented coordination between departments (e.g., transport, sanitation)

Way Forward

To overcome these challenges, cities must:

• Institutionalize behavioral roles in governance structures
• Partner with behavioral scientists and think tanks
• Leverage technology (e.g., mobile apps for citizen feedback)
• Scale successful pilots (e.g., Indore’s waste model) across regions

This structured approach not only improves efficiency and citizen satisfaction, but also reduces the costs of service delivery, allowing long-term savings.

In News:

After 15 months of war triggered by Hamas' October 2023 attack on Israel, a ceasefire agreement has been brokered by Qatar, Egypt, and the US, marking a fragile but significant pause in one of the most destructive phases of the Israel-Palestine conflict.

Key Features of the Ceasefire Agreement

The agreement is based on a three-phase framework proposed by US President Joe Biden in June 2024 and endorsed by the UN Security Council:

Phase I (42 days)

• Complete ceasefire and withdrawal of Israeli forces from all populated areas in Gaza.
• Release of 33 Israeli hostages (women, elderly, injured) by Hamas.
• Release of 900–1,650 Palestinian prisoners, including minors and those detained since October 7, 2023.
• Daily entry of 600 humanitarian aid trucks into Gaza.
• Partial Israeli withdrawal from key corridors like Netzarim (splitting Gaza) and parts of the Philadelphi Corridor (Gaza-Egypt border).

Phase II

• Release of remaining hostages, primarily male soldiers.
• Complete Israeli military withdrawal from Gaza.
• Details to be negotiated during Phase I; no written guarantees for its execution.

Phase III

• Return of the remains of deceased hostages.
• Initiation of a multi-year reconstruction plan for Gaza under international supervision.

Challenges to Implementation

Fragile Political Consensus in Israel

• Far-right ministers (e.g., Itamar Ben-Gvir) oppose the deal, threatening to quit the government.
• Prime Minister Netanyahu faces pressure from both hawks demanding a full military victory and moderates seeking peace.

Hamas' Demands

• Seeks permanent ceasefire and complete Israeli withdrawal, making it unwilling to release all hostages without guarantees.
• Israel, in contrast, insists on neutralizing Hamas militarily.

Unclear Future Governance of Gaza

• Israel rejects both Hamas and the Palestinian Authority (PA) as future administrators.
• Global consensus supports Palestinian-led governance, but viable alternatives remain elusive.

Wider Geopolitical Impact

Reshaping West Asia

• Conflict escalated tensions with Hezbollah (Lebanon) and drew Israel into direct conflict with Iran.
• Iran’s influence weakened due to losses in Hezbollah and Syria.
• Assad regime in Syria collapsed, altering regional power dynamics.

Diplomatic Repercussions for Israel

• Despite military dominance, Israel faces global condemnation over civilian casualties.
• PM Netanyahu is under scrutiny at the ICC (war crimes) and ICJ (genocide allegations).
• Israel is now diplomatically isolated, particularly after the humanitarian toll in Gaza.

Humanitarian Crisis in Gaza

• Over 64,000 Palestinians killed (The Lancet, 2024), including large numbers of civilians.
• Massive destruction of infrastructure—schools, hospitals, homes—rendering Gaza nearly uninhabitable.
• Reconstruction hinges on sustained peace and international aid.

Conclusion

The ceasefire presents a rare opportunity for de-escalation in a deeply entrenched conflict. However, distrust between parties, domestic political constraints, and regional rivalries pose significant risks to its sustainability. A durable peace can only emerge through inclusive political dialogue, humanitarian prioritization, and movement toward a two-state solution.

Context:

India, with 17% of the world’s population but only 4% of its freshwater resources, faces significant water distribution challenges. The ambitious river interlinking project aims to mitigate regional water imbalances by transferring water from surplus areas to water-deficient regions, addressing irrigation, drinking water supply, flood control, and overall development.

Background and Evolution

The idea of interlinking rivers dates back to 1858 when British engineer Captain Arthur Cotton proposed linking rivers for inland navigation. Post-independence, Dr. K.L. Rao (1972) suggested the ‘Ganga-Cauvery Link Canal,’ followed by Captain Dinshaw J. Dastur’s ‘National Garland Canal’ proposal in 1977. However, these were deemed infeasible. In 1980, the Ministry of Water Resources formulated the National Perspective Plan (NPP), identifying 30 river link projects—14 under the Himalayan component and 16 under the Peninsular component.

The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was established in 1982 to study and implement these projects. The Supreme Court, in response to a PIL in 2002, directed the government to expedite the completion of interlinking projects.

Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP)

The first project under the NPP, the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP), was inaugurated on December 25, 2024. It aims to provide irrigation to Bundelkhand, one of India’s most drought-prone regions, by transferring surplus water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Covering 10.62 lakh hectares of land (8.11 lakh ha in MP and 2.51 lakh ha in UP), the project will supply drinking water to 62 lakh people and generate 103 MW of hydropower along with 27 MW of solar power. However, environmental concerns persist as it passes through the Panna Tiger Reserve.

Significance of River Interlinking

• Water Redistribution: The scheme will transfer about 200 billion cubic meters (BCM) of water annually to water-scarce regions, ensuring equitable distribution.
• Agricultural Benefits: It will irrigate approximately 34 million hectares of farmland, enhancing food security and increasing agricultural productivity.
• Hydropower Generation: An estimated 34,000 MW of hydropower will be generated, supporting renewable energy expansion.
• Flood and Drought Mitigation: Excess water will be stored in reservoirs, reducing flood risks while ensuring availability during droughts.
• Economic Growth: Improved water availability will boost industries, generate employment, and aid in rural development.

Environmental and Social Concerns

• Ecological Disruptions: Altering river morphology can impact sediment transport, water quality, and aquatic ecosystems.
• Biodiversity Loss: Dams and canals may disrupt fish migration patterns and submerge forests, leading to biodiversity depletion.
• Climate Impact: Water transfer may affect regional climate attributes, altering temperature, precipitation, and humidity levels.
• Displacement and Social Issues: Large-scale projects often lead to displacement of communities, causing resettlement challenges and conflicts over compensation.
• Economic Viability: High project costs and potential delays raise concerns about financial feasibility compared to alternative solutions like rainwater harvesting and local water conservation.

Conclusion

While river interlinking presents a potential solution to India’s water crisis, it must be carefully assessed against environmental and social impacts. Sustainable water management strategies, such as efficient irrigation techniques and localized conservation methods, should complement large-scale projects to ensure a balanced approach to water security and development.

In News:

India is making significant strides toward digital governance, an initiative aimed at enhancing both citizen services and the capabilities of government employees. This transition to a digitally-driven framework is designed to improve the efficiency, transparency, and accountability of government operations, positioning India as a global leader in modern governance practices.

What is Digital Governance?

Digital governance refers to the application of technology to enhance the functioning of government processes. By integrating digital tools and platforms, it aims to streamline administrative operations, reduce inefficiencies, and improve public service delivery. This approach also extends to ensuring greater transparency and accountability in government dealings.

Key Initiatives in Digital Governance

India has launched several critical initiatives to modernize governance through digital means. Some of the key programs include:

• iGOT Karmayogi Platform: The iGOT Karmayogi platform is a government initiative to provide online training to public employees. It aims to enhance public administration skills, foster expertise in data analytics, and equip employees with the necessary tools in digital technologies. This initiative aims to prepare government personnel to handle the challenges of a digitally evolving governance landscape.

• e-Office Initiative: The e-Office program is designed to reduce paper-based work by digitizing workflows within government departments. This initiative facilitates real-time communication among offices and ensures more efficient and transparent management of tasks. It also helps streamline decision-making processes and improves the speed of governance operations.
• Government e-Marketplace (GeM): The Government e-Marketplace (GeM) is an online platform developed to optimize procurement processes. It allows government agencies to procure goods and services efficiently, transparently, and with accountability. This platform has contributed to reducing corruption and ensuring that government purchases represent the best value for public money.
• Cybersecurity Training for Employees: As digital operations increase, ensuring the safety of sensitive data is paramount. The cybersecurity training program for government employees is designed to enhance their ability to recognize and respond to potential cyber threats. This initiative ensures data protection, safe online practices, and cyber resilience across digital governance platforms.

Challenges in Implementing Digital Governance

Despite its benefits, India faces several challenges in the successful implementation of digital governance. These obstacles must be addressed to unlock the full potential of technology-driven governance.

• Resistance to Technological Change: One of the key barriers to digital transformation in government is the resistance among employees to adopt new technologies. Many government officials remain accustomed to traditional, paper-based processes and are reluctant to transition to digital systems due to concerns about complexity and job security.
• Digital Divide in Rural Areas:  While urban regions in India have better access to high-speed internet and digital infrastructure, many rural areas face significant digital divide challenges. Limited access to technology hampers the successful implementation of digital governance in these regions, restricting equitable service delivery across the country. 
• Cybersecurity Risks: The rise of digital operations in governance increases the risk of cyberattacks and data breaches. With government data being digitized, the threat of cybercrimes becomes more pronounced, making it critical to implement robust cybersecurity measures and data protection strategies to safeguard sensitive information.
• Lack of Incentives for Training Outcomes: Although government employees are encouraged to take part in training programs such as iGOT Karmayogi, the absence of clear incentives to complete these programs can undermine their effectiveness. Establishing tangible rewards or career progression linked to the successful completion of training would encourage employees to fully engage in capacity-building initiatives.

Solutions to Overcome Challenges

To ensure the success of digital governance, several strategies must be put in place to address the challenges identified.

• Foster Innovation-Friendly Environments: Promoting an innovation-friendly culture within government offices can help reduce resistance to new technologies. Encouraging employees to engage with digital tools, offering regular training, and providing ongoing support will facilitate a smoother transition to a technology-driven governance system.
• Invest in Digital Infrastructure for Rural Areas: Addressing the digital divide requires significant investment in digital infrastructure in rural and remote areas. Ensuring that these regions have reliable internet access and the necessary technological resources will empower citizens across India to benefit from digital governance.
• Continuous Capacity-Building Programs: Establishing continuous training programs for government employees will ensure that they remain up-to-date with the latest technological trends. Regular updates to training content will help employees stay prepared to handle emerging challenges in digital governance.
• Strengthen Cybersecurity Protocols: To mitigate cybersecurity risks, it is essential to implement stringent cybersecurity measures across all levels of government operations. This includes regular cybersecurity awareness programs, proactive threat management systems, and rigorous data protection protocols to safeguard both government data and citizens’ personal information.

Conclusion

India’s shift towards digital governance represents a significant step toward modernizing administrative systems, enhancing transparency, and improving service delivery to citizens. However, challenges such as resistance to change, the digital divide, cybersecurity risks, and the lack of clear incentives for training must be addressed. By investing in digital infrastructure, offering continuous training programs, and reinforcing cybersecurity measures, India can create an effective and secure framework for digital governance that benefits both its citizens and the government workforce.

Context

India has solidified its position as one of the most dynamic startup ecosystems globally, emerging as a hub for innovation, entrepreneurship, and technological progress. However, realizing its ambition of becoming the top startup ecosystem requires addressing critical challenges and leveraging available opportunities.

Current Landscape of Indian Startups

Growth and Innovation

India ranks as the third-largest startup ecosystem in the world, following the U.S. and China. As of January 15, 2025, over 1.59 lakh startups have been officially recognized by DPIIT, with more than 120 attaining unicorn status (valuation exceeding $1 billion).

Investment Trends

Despite economic fluctuations, India's startups continue to attract significant investments. In 2022, venture capitalists infused $25 billion into the ecosystem, reaffirming India’s position as a preferred destination for global investors. Although there was a slowdown in 2023, domains like Software as a Service (SaaS) and climate tech continue to secure substantial funding.

Government Support

India’s startup-friendly policies, including Startup India, Digital India, and Atmanirbhar Bharat, have created an enabling environment. Notable initiatives include:

• Tax incentives, faster patent approvals, and regulatory relaxations.
• The launch of a ?10,000 crore Fund of Funds for Startups (FFS) in 2023 to improve capital accessibility.
• The Bharat Startup Knowledge Access Registry (BHASKAR) to streamline collaboration among startups and investors.

Regional Growth

• Tier II and III Expansion: Nearly 50% of startups are now based in emerging hubs such as Indore, Jaipur, and Ahmedabad.
• Tamil Nadu: The state boasts a $28 billion startup ecosystem, growing at 23%. Chennai alone houses around 5,000 startups, significantly contributing to employment generation.
• Kerala: With a $1.7 billion startup ecosystem, Kerala exhibits a compound annual growth rate of 254%, emphasizing cost-effective tech talent hiring.

Key Challenges Faced by Startups

1. Funding Constraints

The global economic downturn, coupled with rising interest rates, has limited venture capital inflows, resulting in layoffs and operational cutbacks.

2. Regulatory and Compliance Barriers

Despite government support, startups grapple with complex tax structures, evolving data protection laws, and stringent compliance requirements, including ESOP taxation policies.

3. Scaling and Market Adaptability

Many startups struggle with operational inefficiencies, limited market penetration, and inadequate infrastructure, hampering growth potential.

4. High Failure Rate

Approximately 90% of Indian startups fail within five years due to poor product-market fit, lack of financial planning, and insufficient adaptation to market needs.

5. Talent Shortages

India faces stiff competition in acquiring skilled professionals in areas like AI, cybersecurity, and machine learning, making retention increasingly difficult amid economic uncertainties.

Strategic Measures to Strengthen India’s Startup Ecosystem

1. Enhancing Policy Frameworks

• Simplified Regulations: Streamline startup registration, funding approvals, and international business operations.
• IP Protection: Strengthen intellectual property laws to boost R&D investment.
• Sector-Specific Initiatives: Develop targeted policies for AI, deep tech, healthcare, and green technologies.

2. Expanding Funding Access

• Encouraging Domestic Investment: Leverage pension and sovereign wealth funds to invest in startups.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Foster large-scale government-industry collaboration to finance emerging ventures.
• Decentralized Funding: Expand angel investor networks and micro-investment opportunities, particularly in Tier II and III cities.

3. Building Robust Infrastructure

• Tech Parks and Incubation Centers: Establish state-of-the-art facilities with mentorship programs.
• Improved Digital Connectivity: Ensure high-speed internet access in underserved regions.
• Enhanced Logistics and Supply Chains: Strengthen infrastructure to support startup scalability.

4. Developing a Skilled Workforce

• STEM and Entrepreneurial Education: Introduce curriculum enhancements in technical and business disciplines.
• Upskilling Programs: Collaborate with industry leaders to train professionals in high-demand skills.
• Diversity and Inclusion: Promote initiatives encouraging women and marginalized communities in entrepreneurship.

5. Fostering Innovation and Risk-Taking

• Strengthened R&D Funding: Increase allocations to universities and private research sectors.
• Encouraging Entrepreneurship: Reduce societal stigma surrounding startup failures to promote risk-taking.
• Leveraging Domestic Challenges: Address local issues like climate change and urbanization through innovation.

6. Expanding Global Reach

• International Collaborations: Partner with foreign accelerators and governments.
• Ease of Cross-Border Trade: Simplify export and import regulations for startups.
• Engaging the Indian Diaspora: Encourage successful overseas entrepreneurs to mentor and invest in Indian startups.

7. Advancing Sustainability Goals

• Green Tech Promotion: Support startups focusing on renewable energy and circular economy initiatives.
• Eco-Friendly Incentives: Offer financial support to ventures aligning with sustainability targets.
• Inclusive Growth Strategies: Expand agritech, edtech, and health-tech startups in rural areas, supporting platforms like the Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) by NITI Aayog.

Building a Resilient Digital Economy

To fortify India's digital economy, startups should leverage existing infrastructure like UPI and Aadhaar while capitalizing on emerging technologies such as AI, 5G, and blockchain. A robust cybersecurity framework and data protection policies will be essential to ensure investor confidence.

In News:

The Genome India Project is an ambitious national initiative aimed at decoding the genetic diversity of India’s population. Launched in January 2020 by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), the project seeks to create a comprehensive map of India’s genetic variations, offering insights that can revolutionize public health, medicine, and our understanding of human genetics.

What is Genome Sequencing?

Genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome. The human genome, composed of about 3 billion base pairs of DNA, contains all the genetic instructions necessary for the growth, development, and functioning of the human body. The process involves extracting DNA from a sample (often blood), breaking it into smaller fragments, and using a sequencer to decode these fragments. The data is then reassembled to reconstruct the full genome.

Key Aims and Objectives

The Genome India Project aims to address several crucial scientific and healthcare challenges:

• Create an Exhaustive Catalog of Genetic Variations: This includes common, low-frequency, rare, and structural variations (such as Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms or SNPs).
• Establish a Reference Haplotype Structure: This reference panel will be used for imputing missing genetic variations in future genetic studies.
• Design Affordable Genome-wide Arrays: These arrays will be useful for research and diagnostics at a lower cost, making genetic analysis accessible.
• Create a Biobank for Future Research: The collected DNA and plasma will be preserved for future studies to facilitate ongoing genetic research.

Genome India Project: Phase 1 and Key Findings

The project’s Phase 1 focused on sequencing the genomes of 10,074 individuals from 99 ethnic groups across India. This initiative provides a critical baseline for studying the country’s genetic diversity. Some of the key findings include:

• 459 plant species have been identified as part of genetic diversity studies.
• 135 million genetic variations have been uncovered, including 7 million that are unique to India, not found in global databases.
• The project has revealed several genetic risks specific to Indian populations, such as the MYBPC3 mutation (linked to cardiac arrest) and the LAMB3 mutation (associated with a lethal skin condition), which are not commonly seen in global datasets.

This database will serve as a vital resource for researchers, contributing to the development of precision medicine, better disease diagnosis, and more personalized treatments.

Second Phase: Expanding the Scope

The second phase of the Genome India Project will focus on sequencing the genomes of individuals suffering from specific diseases. This will enable researchers to:

• Compare the genomes of healthy individuals with those having diseases, helping identify genetic mutations responsible for conditions like cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases.
• Investigate rare diseases specific to Indian populations and develop therapies tailored to these conditions.

By sequencing the genomes of individuals with various conditions, the project aims to pinpoint genetic factors that contribute to the pre-disposition or causation of diseases.

Data Sharing and Security

To ensure data security and privacy, the genetic information will be made available only through managed access. Researchers interested in using the data will need to submit a proposal and collaborate with the Department of Biotechnology. The data will be stored securely at the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC) in Faridabad, Haryana, and anonymized to maintain confidentiality.

Why Does India Need Its Own Genetic Database?

India is home to a highly diverse population, with over 4,600 distinct ethnic groups and varying genetic backgrounds. The country’s genetic diversity, shaped by its geographical, cultural, and historical context, cannot be fully understood through datasets derived from other countries. The Genome India Project helps:

• Identify Genetic Risk Factors: For various diseases, paving the way for developing targeted diagnostic tools and therapies.
• Uncover Unique Variants: Some genetic mutations found in India, such as the Vaishya community’s resistance to anaesthetics, are absent in global databases.
• Address Population-specific Health Issues: Genetic mapping enables the identification of prevalent diseases and health conditions specific to Indian populations.

Global Context and Comparison

India’s genome sequencing effort is part of a larger global movement in genomics:

• Human Genome Project (2003): The first international effort to decode the human genome.
• 1,000 Genome Project (2012): Published 1,092 human genome sequences.
• UK 100,000 Genome Project (2018): Sequenced 100,000 genomes for health research.
• European Genome Project: Aims to sequence over 1 million genomes across 24 countries.

The Genome India Project fills a crucial gap by focusing on the genetic diversity of Indian populations, which differs significantly from the genetic profiles studied in Western or European genomes.

Applications of Genome India Project

The Genome India Project has the potential to impact multiple areas:

• Advancements in Medicine: Understanding genetic variations can lead to the development of personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual genetic profiles.
• Genetic and Infectious Disease Control: The project helps identify genetic resistance to diseases, and aids in understanding how certain populations may respond differently to drugs or vaccines.
• Public Health Policies: Data from the project can inform health policies, especially in tackling diseases prevalent in specific regions or communities.
• International Research Collaboration: The project aims to foster collaboration with global research communities, enhancing India’s presence in the field of genomics.

Conclusion:

The Genome India Project is a landmark initiative for India’s scientific community, enabling better understanding of the country’s genetic diversity and paving the way for breakthroughs in medicine, healthcare, and disease prevention. The ability to analyze genetic variations on such a large scale provides immense opportunities for precision medicine and personalized treatments.

Introduction:

The future of Indian agriculture is at a crossroads. With the shrinking of the agricultural workforce and the diversion of fertile farmlands for urbanization, ensuring the sustainability of farming is a strategic imperative. Among the various support mechanisms for farmers, the Minimum Support Price (MSP) remains a central point of debate. Should there be a legal guarantee for MSP? This question has gained prominence, especially with the rising challenges in agriculture, from unpredictable climate patterns to volatile market prices.

The Decline of Agriculture and Its Impact

India’s agricultural sector faces a dual crisis: loss of both land and human resources. Prime agricultural lands across river basins, such as the Ganga-Yamuna Doab or the Krishna-Godavari delta, are being repurposed for real estate, infrastructure, and industrial projects. Additionally, the number of "serious farmers" – those deriving at least half of their income from agriculture – is dwindling. The number of operational holdings may be 146.5 million, but only a small fraction of these farmers remains committed to agriculture.

This decline threatens the future of India’s food security, as the country will need to feed a population of 1.7 billion by the 2060s. To sustain farming and ensure long-term food security, we must secure farmers' livelihoods. Price security, particularly through MSP, plays a crucial role in this context.

The Role of MSP in Securing Farmers

MSP is the government-mandated price at which it guarantees the purchase of crops if market prices fall below a certain threshold. It provides a safety net for farmers against price volatility. The process of fixing MSP involves recommendations by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), which takes into account factors such as the cost of production and market trends. Once approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA), MSP is set for various crops, including rice, wheat, and sugarcane.

For farmers to stay in business, there must be a balance between production costs and returns. Farming is a risky business – yield losses can occur due to weather anomalies, pest attacks, or other natural factors. However, price risks can be mitigated with a guaranteed MSP. This would encourage farmers to invest in their land and adopt modern farming technologies, which would boost productivity and reduce costs.

Arguments for and Against Legal MSP Guarantee

Supporters of a legal MSP guarantee argue that it would provide financial security to farmers, protecting them from unpredictable market conditions. It would also promote crop diversification, encourage farmers to shift from water-intensive crops to those less dependent on irrigation, and inject resources into rural economies, thus addressing distress in rural areas.

However, critics highlight several challenges with a legal guarantee for MSP. The most significant concern is the fiscal burden it would impose on the government, potentially reaching Rs. 5 trillion. Furthermore, such a system could distort market dynamics, discouraging private traders and leading to a situation where the government becomes the primary buyer of agricultural produce. This could be economically unsustainable, especially for crops with low yields. Additionally, legal MSP guarantees could violate World Trade Organization (WTO) subsidy principles, adversely impacting India’s agricultural exports.

The Way Forward: A Balanced Approach

Given the challenges associated with a legal MSP guarantee, alternative measures should be explored. Price Deficiency Payment (PDP) schemes, such as those implemented in Madhya Pradesh and Haryana, could be expanded at the national level. These schemes compensate farmers for the difference between market prices and MSP, ensuring price security without the fiscal burden of procurement.

Additionally, the government can focus on improving agricultural infrastructure, such as cold storage facilities, to help farmers better access markets and increase price realization. Supporting Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) could also help farmers by enhancing collective bargaining power and ensuring better prices for their produce. Moreover, gradual expansion of MSP coverage to include a wider range of crops would encourage diversification, reducing the dominance of rice and wheat.

Overview of the River Interlinking Concept

The concept of river interlinking in India traces its origins to the 19th century, when Sir Arthur Cotton first proposed inter-basin water transfer to address irrigation issues. Over time, this idea was refined by other experts. It evolved into the National Water Grid and, later, the River-Interlinking Project (ILR) under the Ministry of Water Resources. The goal is to transfer surplus water from rivers to drought-prone areas, aiming for water security, irrigation, and power generation.

Key Projects and Initiatives

• Ken-Betwa River Link Project (KBLP): Launched in December 2024, the KBLP will link the water-surplus Ken River with the drought-stricken Betwa River. It aims to irrigate over 10 lakh hectares, supply drinking water to 62 lakh people, and generate hydropower and solar power. However, concerns over the environmental impact of building a dam within the Panna Tiger Reserve have been raised.
• National River Linking Project (NRLP): The NRLP, formally known as the National Perspective Plan, is an ambitious proposal that includes 30 river links—14 Himalayan and 16 Peninsular—to connect India's rivers and create a giant South Asian Water Grid.

Benefits of Interlinking Rivers

• Flood and Drought Mitigation: Redistributing water from surplus areas to drought-prone regions, such as Bundelkhand, will reduce the severity of floods and droughts.
• Agriculture and Irrigation: Expanding irrigation systems across 35 million hectares of land could significantly boost agricultural productivity and food security.
• Hydropower Generation: The interlinking project has the potential to generate up to 34 GW of hydropower, contributing to India's renewable energy targets.
• Economic Growth: Improving water availability can boost industries, provide drinking water, and support economic development in underdeveloped regions.
• Inland Waterways: The project will also contribute to the expansion of inland waterways, benefiting trade and reducing transportation costs.

Challenges and Concerns

• Environmental Impact:
  • Biodiversity Loss: Projects like the Ken-Betwa project raise alarms about the destruction of ecologically sensitive areas, such as the Panna Tiger Reserve.
  • River Ecosystem Disruption: Altering natural river courses can harm aquatic life, disrupt deltaic ecosystems, and degrade water quality. For instance, the Sardar Sarovar Dam's impact on the Narmada river system shows the long-term consequences of such projects.
  • Pollution: The mixing of cleaner and more polluted rivers could exacerbate water contamination issues.
• Social and Financial Costs:
  • Displacement: Large-scale interlinking projects will displace millions, especially marginalized communities and indigenous people, and disturb local livelihoods.
  • High Financial Burden: The total estimated cost of the NRLP is ?5.5 lakh crore, which does not include environmental rehabilitation costs or the long-term maintenance of the infrastructure.
• Climate Change: Predictions suggest that climate change could affect river flows and the availability of surplus water. This might render the interlinking project ineffective in the long term.
• Inter-State Conflicts: Water-sharing disputes, like the long-standing issues over the Cauvery and Krishna rivers, could intensify with more interlinking projects.
• Infrastructural Challenges: Maintaining vast canal networks and reservoirs, managing sedimentation, and acquiring land for construction are logistical hurdles.

Alternative Approaches and Solutions

• Efficient Water Management:
  • Integrated Watershed Management: Implementing a comprehensive approach to manage existing water resources can reduce the need for large-scale river transfers.
  • Groundwater Recharge: Focusing on efficient groundwater management by identifying recharge mechanisms and regulating water use is crucial for sustainability.
• Modern Irrigation Techniques:
  • Drip Irrigation: Israel’s success with drip irrigation, which reduces water use by 25%-75%, provides an example of how modern technologies can save significant amounts of water.
• Virtual Water: Emphasizing the import of water-intensive goods (like wheat) could save local water resources, which would otherwise be used for domestic agriculture.
• National Waterways Project (NWP): An alternative to the interlinking project, NWP aims to improve water management by creating navigation channels that double as water distribution networks with a fraction of the land use.

Way Forward

• Comprehensive Impact Assessments: The need for multidisciplinary studies to evaluate the environmental, social, and economic impacts of river interlinking projects cannot be overstated. Stakeholder engagement is crucial for equitable decision-making.
• Sustainable Water Policies: A national water policy should prioritize sustainable water practices, focusing on local solutions, such as water harvesting, watershed management, and smart irrigation.
• Focus on Regional Solutions: Smaller, state-specific projects should be prioritized to address water scarcity issues without triggering large-scale environmental degradation.

In News:

Climate change is significantly affecting Earth's water cycle, leading to extreme weather events such as intense floods and prolonged droughts. According to the 2024 Global Water Monitor Report, this disruption is increasingly evident, as seen in the devastating weather patterns experienced worldwide in 2024. The report, based on data from international researchers, highlights how these changes are directly linked to rising global temperatures and the resulting shifts in precipitation patterns.

Understanding the Water Cycle

The water cycle is the continuous movement of water in various forms—solid, liquid, and gas—throughout the Earth's atmosphere, land, and bodies of water. This cycle involves processes such as:

• Evaporation: Water from the surface of oceans, lakes, and rivers turns into vapor.
• Transpiration: Water is absorbed by plants from the soil and released as vapor.
• Precipitation: Water vapor condenses into clouds and falls as rain or snow, replenishing the Earth's surface.
• Runoff and Infiltration: Precipitation either flows into rivers or infiltrates the soil, contributing to groundwater.

The water cycle is vital for maintaining the planet’s ecosystems, regulating weather patterns, and providing water for all living organisms. However, climate change is intensifying these natural processes, with far-reaching consequences.

Impact of Climate Change on the Water Cycle

As global temperatures rise, climate change is having a profound impact on the water cycle. Warmer temperatures lead to:

• Increased evaporation: As air temperatures soar, more water evaporates into the atmosphere. For every 1°C rise in temperature, the atmosphere can hold about 7% more moisture, which exacerbates storms and increases the intensity of rainfall.
• More intense precipitation: With more moisture in the atmosphere, storms have become more intense, leading to severe flooding in various regions.
• Increased droughts: Warmer air also dries out the soil. This reduces the amount of water available for crops and plants, while also increasing the evaporation rate from soil, leading to longer and more intense droughts.

This disruption of the water cycle is already causing erratic weather patterns, as some regions face severe droughts, while others are experiencing extreme rainfall and floods.

Key Findings from the 2024 Global Water Monitor Report

The 2024 report presents several alarming statistics that highlight the growing impact of climate change on the water cycle:

• Water-related disasters: In 2024, these disasters caused over 8,700 fatalities, displaced 40 million people, and resulted in economic losses exceeding $550 billion globally.
• Dry months: There were 38% more record-dry months in 2024 than the baseline period (1995-2005), underlining the growing frequency of droughts.
• Intense rainfall: Record-breaking rainfall occurred 27% more frequently in 2024 compared to 2000, with daily rainfall records set 52% more often. This shows the growing intensity of precipitation events.
• Terrestrial water storage (TWS): Many dry regions faced ongoing low TWS levels, reflecting the scarcity of water in these areas, while some regions, such as parts of Africa, saw an increase in water storage.
• Future predictions: Droughts may worsen in regions like northern South America, southern Africa, and parts of Asia, while areas like the Sahel and Europe could experience increased flood risks in the coming years.

Conclusion

The findings of the 2024 report underscore the alarming impact of climate change on the global water cycle. As temperatures continue to rise, we can expect more frequent and severe weather events, including extreme flooding and devastating droughts. These changes will affect billions of people worldwide, highlighting the urgent need for action to mitigate climate change and adapt to its consequences. Addressing this challenge requires global cooperation to reduce emissions, enhance water management systems, and protect vulnerable regions from the intensifying effects of climate change.

In News:

The recent visit of Sri Lankan President Anura Kumara Dissanayake (AKD) to India marked a significant moment in bilateral relations, as it was his first foreign trip since assuming office. The visit underscored key diplomatic exchanges and collaborations between the two countries, showcasing both areas of agreement and divergence.

Key Takeaways from AKD's Visit

Assurance on Anti-India Activities: One of the primary concerns for India was the use of Sri Lankan territory for activities detrimental to its security, particularly the presence of Chinese “research vessels” at Sri Lankan ports. President AKD assured Prime Minister Narendra Modi that Sri Lanka would not allow its territory to be used in ways that threaten India’s interests. This assurance is crucial, as it signals Sri Lanka's stance on maintaining regional stability, despite AKD’s perceived pro-China inclinations.

Tamil Minority Issue: Divergent Views: A notable divergence in their discussions was the issue of the Tamil minority in Sri Lanka. India has long advocated for the full implementation of the 13th Amendment to Sri Lanka’s Constitution, which would grant greater autonomy to the Tamil minority. However, AKD resisted this, reaffirming his opposition to the amendment’s full implementation. While India emphasized the importance of reconciliation and holding provincial elections, AKD focused on unity, sustainable development, and social protection, sidestepping any definitive commitments on the Tamil issue.

Sri Lanka's Assertive Diplomatic Posture: AKD’s strong parliamentary mandate has allowed him to adopt a more assertive diplomatic stance. This is evident not only in his handling of the Tamil issue but also in his approach to dealing with major powers like India and China. His administration appears to be prioritizing a more independent foreign policy, signaling a shift from previous administrations.

Bilateral Cooperation and Development Initiatives

The visit saw significant agreements on bilateral cooperation, particularly in development and connectivity. Both nations acknowledged the positive impact of India’s assistance in Sri Lanka’s socio-economic growth. Key projects discussed include:

• Indian Housing Project: Phases III and IV.
• Hybrid Renewable Energy Projects across three islands.
• High-Impact Community Development Projects.
• Digital collaborations, such as the implementation of Aadhaar and UPI systems in Sri Lanka.

Additionally, discussions focused on enhancing energy cooperation, including the supply of LNG, development of offshore wind power in the Palk Strait, and the high-capacity power grid interconnection. The resumption of passenger ferry services between key Indian and Sri Lankan ports was also a priority.

Defence and Security Cooperation

The two leaders agreed to explore a Defence Cooperation Framework and intensify collaboration on maritime surveillance, cyber security, and counter-terrorism. This aligns with India’s strategic interests in the region, as it seeks to ensure stability in the Indian Ocean and strengthen its defense ties with Sri Lanka.

Strategic Continuity Amid Leadership Change

Despite a change in leadership, the core strategic interests between India and Sri Lanka remain aligned. India views Sri Lanka’s stability as crucial to regional security, and both countries are focused on a mutually beneficial partnership. AKD’s emphasis on economic recovery and tackling corruption within Sri Lanka, as seen in his actions against political figures like Speaker Asoka Ranwala, further signals his determination to build a strong foundation for his government’s future.

Conclusion

President AKD’s visit highlighted the evolving dynamics of Sri Lanka’s foreign policy, marked by a more confident and independent approach in engaging with India. While challenges remain, especially regarding the Tamil issue, both countries have reaffirmed their commitment to deepening bilateral ties, with a focus on development, connectivity, and strategic cooperation.

Introduction

The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is a flagship program by the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) that aims to reduce poverty by empowering women, especially through Self-Help Groups (SHGs). These SHGs have been instrumental in improving financial inclusion, providing access to credit, and enhancing the economic and social status of women across India. The program has made significant strides in mobilizing women, improving their access to financial services, and facilitating entrepreneurial ventures in rural areas.

Key Features and Initiatives of DAY-NRLM

• Self-Help Groups (SHGs):
  • Formation: DAY-NRLM supports the creation and strengthening of SHGs, primarily focusing on rural women from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.
  • Mobilization: As of 2024, over 10.05 crore women have been mobilized into 90.87 lakh SHGs across India.
  • Objective: The main goal is to reduce poverty through empowerment by providing access to financial services and sustainable livelihoods.
• Start-up Village Entrepreneurship Programme (SVEP):
  • Support for Rural Enterprises: SVEP, a sub-scheme under DAY-NRLM, encourages SHG women and their families to set up small-scale businesses.
  • Impact: As of October 2024, 3.13 lakh rural enterprises have been supported under this initiative.
  • State-wise Distribution: The program has supported enterprises across various states, with notable contributions from Andhra Pradesh (27,651 enterprises), Kerala (34,569), and Uttar Pradesh (28,904).
• Banking Correspondent Sakhis:
  • Role: Women in SHGs are trained as Banking Correspondent Sakhis to enhance access to banking services such as deposits, credit, remittances, pensions, and insurance in rural areas.
  • Current Deployment: 1,35,127 Sakhis have been deployed under DAY-NRLM, empowering women to be financial intermediaries in their communities.
• Financial Support for SHGs:
  • Revolving Fund: SHGs receive funds ranging from Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 30,000 to boost their operations and financial stability.
  • Community Investment Fund: SHGs can avail of up to Rs. 2.50 lakh under the Community Investment Fund to strengthen their financial position.
  • Interest Subvention: To make bank loans more affordable, DAY-NRLM provides interest subvention to SHGs, reducing their overall credit costs.
• Online Marketing Platform:
  • www.esaras.in: This online platform allows SHGs to market their products, improving their access to broader markets and enhancing their income-generating potential.

Impact of DAY-NRLM and SHGs

• Financial Inclusion: SHGs play a vital role in financial inclusion by providing access to banking services, loans, and insurance to women, especially in rural and remote areas.
• Credit Mobilization: As of November 2024, SHGs have leveraged Rs. 9.71 lakh crore in bank credit, thanks to the capitalization support provided by DAY-NRLM, including Revolving Funds and Community Investment Funds.
• Empowerment of Women: SHGs have significantly contributed to the empowerment of women, providing them with financial independence, social support, and the ability to make decisions in their households and communities.

Challenges Faced by SHGs

• Beneficiary Identification: Ensuring that the most marginalized individuals are included in SHGs can be challenging.
• Training Gaps: There is a lack of quality training programs and expert trainers to build the capacity of SHG members.
• Financial Literacy: Many SHG members have limited knowledge of formal financial services, hindering effective financial management.
• Market Linkages: Poor integration with markets limits the growth potential of SHGs, especially in terms of product sales and business expansion.
• Community Support: Insufficient business environment support and value chain linkages pose challenges to SHG sustainability and growth.

Government Initiatives Supporting SHGs

• SHG-Bank Linkage Programme (SBLP): Launched by NABARD in 1992, this initiative aims to link SHGs with formal banking institutions, facilitating financial inclusion.
• Mission for Financial Inclusion (MFI): A broader initiative to ensure that rural populations have access to affordable financial services such as savings, credit, insurance, and pensions.
• Lakhpati Didi Initiative: Launched in 2023, this initiative empowers SHG women to adopt sustainable livelihood practices and aim for an annual household income exceeding Rs. 1 lakh.

Role of SHGs in Rural Development

• Women Empowerment: SHGs have emerged as a powerful tool for empowering women through financial independence, social security, and the ability to make informed decisions.
• Economic Growth: SHGs foster small-scale entrepreneurship, thereby creating local businesses that contribute to rural economic growth.
• Social Cohesion: By promoting collective action, SHGs provide a social support system that helps in addressing common issues faced by their members, such as health, education, and safety.

Future Prospects and Way Forward

• Technological Integration: SHGs should leverage advanced digital platforms for transaction management, record-keeping, and communication, enhancing efficiency and accessibility.
• Reducing Informal Borrowing: Linking SHGs with formal financial institutions will reduce reliance on informal lenders, promoting financial inclusion.
• Inclusive Approach: SHGs should adopt an inclusive model to ensure that members from diverse socio-economic backgrounds are fairly represented and benefit equally.
• Training and Capacity Building: There is a need for more Community Resource Persons (CRPs) who can guide SHGs in beneficiary identification, financial management, and scaling their activities.

Introduction

RITES Ltd., the consultancy arm of the Indian Railways, has secured two contracts to repurpose six broad gauge diesel-electric locomotives for export to African railways. These locomotives, originally designed for India’s broad gauge of 1,676 mm, will be modified for use on railways with the narrower Cape Gauge of 1,067 mm. While this is a commendable re-engineering effort, it also highlights a larger issue within Indian Railways: the unnecessary redundancy of functional diesel locomotives, leading to significant wastage of resources.

The Growing Problem of Idle Diesel Locomotives

As of March 2023, there were 585 diesel locomotives idling across the Indian Railways network due to electrification. This number has now reportedly grown to 760 locomotives, many of which still have more than 15 years of serviceable life. The root cause of this redundancy lies in the government’s mission to electrify the entire broad gauge network at an accelerated pace. This electrification push has resulted in the premature retirement of locomotives that could still serve the network for years, raising questions about the economic and environmental logic behind this decision.

The Justification for Electrification: Foreign Exchange and Environmental Concerns

The Indian government’s electrification drive is often justified on two primary grounds: saving foreign exchange by reducing the import of crude oil and reducing environmental pollution. Additionally, electrification is framed as a step toward a “green railway” powered by renewable energy sources like solar and wind. However, the reality of these claims is more complicated.

Foreign Exchange Savings: A Small Impact on National Diesel Consumption

While electrification may reduce India’s diesel consumption, the impact on national fuel use is minimal. Railways account for just 2% of the country’s total diesel consumption. A report by AC Nielsen in 2014 indicated that the transport sector consumed 70% of the total diesel, with railways accounting for only 3.24%. Even with 100% electrification, the savings in foreign exchange would have little impact on the country’s overall diesel consumption, leaving other sectors like trucking and agriculture as the main contributors.

Environmental Concerns: Shifting Pollution, Not Reducing It

The environmental argument for electrification is also flawed. Electricity in India is still largely generated from coal-fired power plants, with nearly 50% of the country’s electricity coming from coal. Since the Indian Railways is heavily involved in transporting coal, switching from diesel to electric locomotives simply shifts pollution from the tracks to the power plants. This means that the transition to electric traction will not result in a cleaner environment unless the country significantly reduces its reliance on coal. Without a substantial increase in renewable energy generation, the push for a “green railway” remains unrealistic.

The Dilemma of Retaining Diesel Locomotives for Strategic Purposes

Despite the goal of 100% electrification, a significant number of diesel locomotives will remain in service. Reports indicate that 2,500 locomotives will be kept for “disaster management” and “strategic purposes,” although it is unclear why such a large fleet is necessary for these purposes. Additionally, about 1,000 locomotives will continue to operate for several more years to meet traffic commitments. This suggests that even with a fully electrified network, Indian Railways will continue to rely on thousands of diesel locomotives, many of which have substantial residual service life left.

Financial Sustainability and Coal Dependency

The financial sustainability of this transition remains a concern. Currently, the Indian Railways generates a significant portion of its freight revenue from transporting coal—40% of its total freight earnings in 2023-24. If the railways become fully electrified, it will need to find alternative revenue sources, as coal is a primary contributor. Until non-coal freight options can replace this income, the financial health of the railways may be at risk.

Conclusion: Wasted Resources and Unmet Goals

The mission to electrify the Indian Railways, while ambitious, is an example of how vanity projects can lead to colossal waste. Thousands of diesel locomotives are being discarded prematurely, despite their potential to continue serving the network. The environmental and financial justifications for 100% electrification, while appealing in theory, fail to account for the complexities of India’s energy landscape. As a result, the drive to create a “green railway” is likely to fall short, leaving behind a legacy of wasted taxpayer money and unfinished goals.

In News:

The Arctic tundra, a frozen, treeless biome, has historically been a vital carbon sink, absorbing vast amounts of carbon dioxide (CO?) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs). However, recent findings suggest that, for the first time in millennia, this ecosystem is emitting more carbon than it absorbs, a change that could have significant global consequences. This alarming shift was highlighted in the 2024 Arctic Report Card published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

The Arctic Tundra’s Role as a Carbon Sink

The Arctic tundra plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate. In typical ecosystems, plants absorb CO? through photosynthesis, and when they die, carbon is either consumed by decomposers or released back into the atmosphere. In contrast, the tundra’s cold environment significantly slows the decomposition process, trapping organic carbon in permafrost—the permanently frozen ground that underpins much of the region.

Over thousands of years, this accumulation of organic matter has resulted in the Arctic storing an estimated 1.6 trillion metric tonnes of carbon. This figure is roughly double the amount of carbon in the entire atmosphere. As such, the tundra has served as a critical carbon sink, helping to mitigate global warming by trapping vast quantities of CO?.

Shifting Dynamics: Emission of Greenhouse Gases

Recent reports indicate a dramatic shift in the Arctic tundra’s role in the carbon cycle. Rising temperatures and increasing wildfire activity have disrupted the tundra’s balance, leading it to transition from a carbon sink to a carbon source.

Impact of Rising Temperatures

The Arctic region is warming at a rate approximately four times faster than the global average. In 2024, Arctic surface air temperatures were recorded as the second-warmest on record since 1900. This rapid warming is causing permafrost to thaw, which in turn activates microbes that break down trapped organic material. As this decomposition accelerates, carbon in the form of CO? and methane (CH?)—a more potent greenhouse gas—are released into the atmosphere.

The experts, explained the process by comparing thawing permafrost to meat left out of the freezer. Similarly, thawing permafrost accelerates the breakdown of trapped carbon.

The Role of Wildfires

In addition to warming temperatures, the Arctic has experienced a surge in wildfires in recent years. 2024 marked the second-highest wildfire season on record in the region, releasing significant amounts of GHGs into the atmosphere. Wildfires exacerbate the thawing of permafrost, creating a feedback loop where increased carbon emissions contribute further to warming, which, in turn, leads to more emissions.

Between 2001 and 2020, these combined factors caused the Arctic tundra to release more carbon than it absorbed, likely for the first time in millennia.

The Global Consequences of Emission

The transition of the Arctic tundra from a carbon sink to a carbon source is alarming, as it represents a significant amplification of global climate change. The release of additional CO? and CH? into the atmosphere further accelerates the greenhouse effect, leading to higher global temperatures. This warming is already having visible consequences around the world, from extreme weather events to rising sea levels.

If the Arctic tundra continues to emit more carbon than it absorbs, it could significantly exacerbate the climate crisis. The report underscores the urgency of addressing global emissions, as reducing greenhouse gases remains the most effective way to prevent further destabilization of this sensitive ecosystem.

Mitigating the Impact: The Path Forward

Despite the alarming trends, the Arctic Report Card suggests that it is still possible to reverse this process. By reducing global GHG emissions, it may be possible to slow the thawing of permafrost and allow the Arctic tundra to regain its role as a carbon sink. Scientists emphasize that mitigating climate change on a global scale is essential to prevent further emissions from the Arctic ecosystem.

Scientists, stressed the importance of emission reductions, stating, “With lower levels of climate change, you get lower levels of emissions from permafrost… That should motivate us all to work towards more aggressive emissions reductions.”

However, current trends suggest that achieving this goal may be challenging. A recent report from the Global Carbon Project indicates that fossil fuel emissions are likely to rise in 2024, with total CO? emissions projected to reach 41.6 billion tonnes, up from 40.6 billion tonnes in 2023.

Introduction

The European Space Agency (ESA) has launched Proba-3, a mission that will create an artificial solar eclipse to study the Sun's atmosphere, known as the corona. This mission aims to demonstrate new technology and address unresolved questions about the Sun's outer layers.

What is an Artificial Solar Eclipse?

• Definition: An artificial solar eclipse mimics the natural phenomenon where the moon blocks sunlight, allowing detailed observation of the Sun’s corona.
• Created By: The eclipse is created by two satellites, which align to block the Sun's light and generate a controlled shadow for scientific study.
• Purpose: The goal is to study the Sun’s corona, particularly to understand why it is significantly hotter than the Sun’s surface.

How Does the Proba-3 Create an Eclipse?

Launch and Spacecraft

Proba-3 was launched on December 5 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in India. The mission uses two satellites:

• Coronagraph Spacecraft (CSC): This spacecraft guides the other satellite.
• Occulter Spacecraft (OSC): This satellite has a disk that creates a controlled shadow onto the CSC.

Formation Flying

Using Precise Formation Flying (PFF) technology, the two spacecraft maintain a precise distance of 150 meters (492 feet) apart, aligning perfectly with the Sun. This alignment mimics the effect of a solar eclipse.

Precision Requirements

The eclipse will need to maintain millimetre-level accuracy for up to six hours per orbit to provide scientists with stable observational conditions.

Mission Goals

• Demonstrating PFF Technology: One of the primary objectives of the Proba-3 mission is to demonstrate PFF technology. This involves using GPS and inter-satellite radio links for positioning, as well as maintaining a precise distance between the two spacecraft.
• Studying the Sun’s Corona: Another goal is to understand why the corona is hotter than the Sun's surface. The onboard instruments, including a coronagraph, will help with this research. The coronagraph will block out the Sun’s bright light, enabling clearer observations of the corona.
• ASPICCS Coronagraph: The Proba-3 coronagraph, named the Association of Spacecraft for Polarimetric and Imaging Investigation of the Corona of the Sun (ASPICCS), is designed to observe the corona in high detail, mimicking the observational conditions of a total solar eclipse.

Why Is This Such a Big Deal?

• Revealing the Sun’s Corona: The Sun’s corona is typically invisible because it is much less bright than the Sun’s surface. It can only be seen during a solar eclipse when the Moon blocks the Sun's light.
• Predicting Space Weather: Studying the corona helps scientists predict space weather and geomagnetic storms, which can disrupt satellites and other systems on Earth.
• Extended Observations: Unlike natural solar eclipses, which last only a few minutes, Proba-3 can provide six hours of observation time in each orbit (approximately 19 hours and 36 minutes), allowing for continuous study of the corona.