In News:

As the world approaches COP30 in Brazil (2025), the role of ethics in climate governance has been revived through the launch of the Global Ethical Stocktake. This initiative aims to place justice, equity, responsibility, and intergenerational fairness at the core of global climate action, complementing the scientific urgency highlighted by rising emissions and warming temperatures.

Ethical Dimensions of Climate Action:

• Justice and Equity:
  • The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities under the UNFCCC reflects fairness—developed nations bear historical responsibility, while developing nations require space for sustainable growth.
  • The Paris Agreement’s “leave no one behind” principle embodies distributive justice.
• Intergenerational Responsibility:
  • Present decisions affect the survival prospects of future generations. Ethical stewardship, not exploitation, is essential.
  • In 2025, the International Court of Justice reaffirmed intergenerational equity as central to climate treaties.
• Human Rights Linkage:
  • Access to food, water, housing, and a healthy environment is inseparable from the right to life (Article 21, Indian Constitution).
  • The Inter-American Court (2024) declared the right to a safe climate a fundamental human right.
• Integrity and Credibility:
  • The gap between climate promises and delivery undermines trust. Ethical governance requires accountability, transparency, and scientific rigor in Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
  • Corporate greenwashing erodes credibility, emphasizing the need for ethical corporate responsibility.
• Solidarity with the Vulnerable:
  • Marginalized groups, Indigenous peoples, and communities in the Global South face disproportionate risks. Ethical climate action ensures inclusion and empathy in adaptation strategies.
  • Community-based initiatives, such as the Himachal Pradesh snow leopard survey, illustrate ethics of inclusion in environmental stewardship.

Role of Ethics in Governance:

• Guiding Negotiators: Ethics reminds negotiators of moral responsibility, where delays equate to human suffering and ecosystem loss.
• Embedding Frameworks: Initiatives like the Global Ethical Stocktake institutionalize ethics alongside scientific assessments.
• Judicial Oversight: Courts link morality with law, compelling states to respect climate and human rights obligations.
• Corporate Responsibility: Businesses must adopt ethical approaches to avoid tokenistic climate pledges.

Ethics in the Indian Context:

• Constitutional Mandates:
  • Article 48A – Duty of the State to protect the environment.
  • Article 51A(g) – Duty of citizens to protect natural resources.
• Judicial Precedents: Vellore Citizens’ Forum vs Union of India (1996) upheld the precautionary principle and polluter pays principle.
• Gandhian Philosophy: Trusteeship aligns with sustainable consumption and responsibility toward nature.

Challenges:

• National interest vs. global good delays climate finance and technology transfer.
• Political polarization and denialism hinder consensus despite rising urgency.
• Greenwashing and weak enforcement erode accountability.
• Adaptation finance remains underfunded, leaving vulnerable populations exposed.

Way Forward:

• Institutionalize the Global Ethical Stocktake to align climate action with justice and equity.
• Implement just transition policies protecting livelihoods while shifting from fossil fuels.
• Strengthen ethical climate jurisprudence to ensure rights-based accountability.
• Promote ethical leadership and integrate climate ethics into education and policymaking.

Conclusion:
Climate change is as much a moral challenge as a scientific one. Ethics—anchored in justice, responsibility, solidarity, and intergenerational equity—must guide global action. Embedding ethics into negotiations, law, community initiatives, and corporate practices is essential to restore credibility, build trust, and ensure a liveable planet for present and future generations.

In News:

• India’s rich cultural and architectural legacy, reflected in thousands of ancient monuments and archaeological sites, has long been under the stewardship of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• Established in 1861, the ASI functions under the Ministry of Culture and enforces the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, and the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972.
• However, with over 3,700 protected monuments under its care, the ASI’s capacity constraints have often resulted in delays and maintenance backlogs.
• Recognizing this challenge, the government has initiated a landmark policy shift to introduce public-private partnerships (PPP) in heritage conservation — marking a major reform in India’s cultural governance.

The Policy Shift

• For the first time, the core conservation of protected monuments will no longer be ASI’s exclusive domain. Under the new model, private players, corporates, and public sector undertakings can directly fund and implement conservation projects under ASI’s supervision. This move seeks to expand capacity, accelerate timelines, and leverage private expertise, while retaining strict professional and regulatory oversight.
• All projects will be monitored by the ASI and must comply with the National Policy for Conservation of Ancient Monuments, Archaeological Sites and Remains (2014). The initiative aims to balance modernization and preservation by fostering collaboration between government, industry, and civil society.

Institutional Framework and Implementation

• The reforms will operate through the National Culture Fund (NCF), established in 1996 with an initial government corpus of ?20 crore.
  • • The NCF enables donors to contribute directly to heritage projects and offers 100% CSR tax exemptions, incentivizing private participation.
• To ensure professional standards, the Ministry of Culture will empanel conservation architects of national repute, who will guide donors in planning and executing projects. The Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) will require ASI approval before implementation.
• Private donors, guided by these architects, can hire external implementing agencies experienced in restoring structures over 100 years old. Initially, a list of 250 monuments requiring urgent conservation will be released for donor selection.

Track Record of the National Culture Fund

Since its inception, the NCF has mobilized around ?140 crore in corporate and public donations, supporting over 100 conservation projects. Notable examples include:

• Bhuleshwar Temple (Pune),
• British Residency (Hyderabad),
• Group of Monuments at Mandu,
• Purana Qila and Red Fort site museums (New Delhi),
• Ongoing work at Vikramshila (Bihar), Deobaloda (Chhattisgarh), and Singorgarh Fort (Madhya Pradesh).

Significance and Safeguards

• The PPP model represents a shift from state monopoly to collaborative stewardship, ensuring accountability, transparency, and efficiency.
• The ASI retains its supervisory authority, maintaining consistency with India’s constitutional framework, where heritage conservation falls under both Union and State jurisdictions, as outlined in the Seventh Schedule and Article 253.
• Qualified conservation architects, empanelled through due diligence, will ensure technical integrity, while all financial contributions must pass through the NCF to prevent misuse. The government views this as a cautious, phased reform, initially assigning private players a supplementary role to test the model’s viability.

Comparison with Past Initiatives

Unlike the earlier ‘Adopt a Heritage’ scheme, which allowed corporates to develop tourist amenities such as cafes and restrooms as “monument mitras,” the current initiative extends to core conservation work. This marks a decisive evolution from heritage promotion to heritage preservation.

Conclusion

India’s new heritage management framework reflects a pragmatic blend of Aatmanirbhar Bharat, cultural preservation, and corporate participation. By integrating private sector efficiency with ASI’s institutional expertise, the model promises to make heritage conservation financially sustainable, technologically advanced, and socially participatory — ensuring that India’s timeless legacy endures through collective stewardship.

In News:

India has achieved a major milestone in deep-sea exploration by signing a new 15-year contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) for the exclusive exploration of Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS) in a 10,000 sq km area of the Carlsberg Ridge in the Indian Ocean.

With this agreement, India has become the first country in the world to hold two PMS exploration contracts, commanding the largest area allocated globally for such exploration. This advancement marks a blend of scientific progress, strategic foresight, and economic opportunity within India’s broader Blue Economy vision.

Polymetallic Sulphides and Their Significance

Polymetallic Sulphides are mineral-rich deposits found on the ocean floor, primarily near hydrothermal vents along mid-ocean ridges. Formed through interactions between seawater and magma beneath the Earth’s crust, they contain valuable metals such as copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, and trace rare elements.

For India, these minerals are crucial for high-technology industries, renewable energy systems, and green technologies. Given the country’s limited terrestrial reserves, deep-sea exploration ensures resource security, supports the energy transition, and reduces import dependence on critical minerals.

India’s Deep Ocean Initiatives

India’s engagement with the ISA dates back over three decades. It was among the earliest countries to receive an area for polymetallic nodule exploration, earning the status of a “Pioneer Investor.” The first PMS exploration contract was signed in 2016 for the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges, and the latest agreement in 2025 extends exploration to the Carlsberg Ridge, located near 2°N latitude — significantly closer to India than the earlier sites.

The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) in Goa, under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), will begin exploration operations in 2026, employing geophysical, hydrographic, and near-seabed surveys.

These efforts are supported by the Deep Ocean Mission, launched by the Government of India to develop seabed mining technology, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), and the Matsya submersible under the Samudrayaan Mission. This ecosystem strengthens India’s capacity for scientific research, environmental assessment, and mineral resource utilisation.

The Carlsberg Ridge: A Strategic and Scientific Hub

The Carlsberg Ridge is a part of the mid-ocean ridge system formed by the divergence of the Indian and Somali plates about 40 million years ago. With a spreading rate of 2.4–3.3 cm per year, it features hydrothermal vent systems ideal for PMS deposits. Its proximity to India enhances logistical feasibility and strategic relevance. The region’s exploration will expand understanding of deep-sea geology, marine ecosystems, and plate tectonics, while supporting India’s long-term maritime interests.

Exploration Challenges and Governance

PMS exploration is among the most technically demanding deep-sea missions, occurring at depths of 2,000–5,000 metres in rugged, volcanic terrains. It demands multidisciplinary collaboration across marine geology, geophysics, biology, and ocean engineering, supported by dynamic-positioning vessels, AUVs, and ROVs.

The ISA, functioning under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), regulates seabed exploration beyond national jurisdictions. Applications must meet rigorous standards of environmental protection, financial capability, and scientific planning before approval.

Future Prospects

Beyond PMS, India has applied for exploration rights over cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount in the Central Indian Ocean, aligning with its Blue Economy and resource security goals. Hosting the 8th ISA Annual Contractors’ Meeting in Goa underscores India’s growing leadership in global seabed research governance.

Conclusion

India’s twin PMS contracts with the ISA mark a historic milestone in ocean science, resource diplomacy, and sustainable technology development. By combining strategic exploration, indigenous innovation, and environmental stewardship, India is positioning itself at the forefront of responsible deep-sea resource management — a critical pillar of its vision for a self-reliant and resilient Blue Economy.

In News:

Electronic waste, or e-waste, has emerged as one of the fastest-growing waste streams globally, driven by rapid technological obsolescence, consumerism, and the digital transformation of economies. E-waste refers to discarded electronic devices—such as mobile phones, laptops, televisions, and refrigerators—that contain both valuable materials like gold, copper, and lithium, and hazardous substances like lead, mercury, and cadmium. The dual nature of e-waste—an economic resource and an environmental hazard—makes its management a critical policy challenge for India.

The Scale of the Problem

According to the Global E-Waste Monitor 2020, India is the world’s third-largest generator of e-waste after China and the USA. The country produced around 4.17 million metric tonnes of e-waste in 2022, yet only one-third was processed through authorized recyclers. With India’s electronics industry projected to grow at a CAGR of 16.6%—from USD 215 billion in FY19 to USD 540 billion by FY25—the volume of e-waste is expected to surge further. This growth is compounded by the increasing number of broadband and smartphone users, currently exceeding 93.9 crore, reflecting expanding consumption and shorter product lifecycles.

Environmental and Health Implications

Improper e-waste disposal leads to severe ecological and health impacts. Open burning and acid leaching—common in informal recycling—release toxic fumes and contaminate soil and groundwater. Heavy metals such as lead and cadmium cause neurological and renal damage, while persistent organic pollutants affect ecosystems and biodiversity. The World Health Organization has warned that children and informal workers face disproportionate exposure risks, underscoring the urgent need for safe handling and regulation.

Policy and Institutional Framework

India’s e-waste management is governed by the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), and effective from April 2023. These rules emphasize Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), mandating manufacturers and importers to collect and recycle end-of-life products. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has initiated audits of recyclers to curb “paper trading” and ensure genuine recycling practices. Moreover, a ?1,500 crore Mineral Recycling Scheme was launched in 2023 to recover critical metals like copper, aluminium, cobalt, and lithium, reducing import dependence amid geopolitical supply risks.

Gaps and Challenges

Despite robust policy intent, significant implementation challenges persist. A 2023 Indian Cellular and Electronics Association report highlighted the dominance of the informal sector, which manages nearly 90% of India’s e-waste through unsafe methods. Lack of material traceability, inadequate inventorying by State Pollution Control Boards, and weak enforcement mechanisms further hamper progress. Experts also note the absence of uniform data and poor public awareness about responsible disposal.

Recent Initiatives and Future Potential

Government efforts, such as the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) initiatives, promote indigenous R&D, technology transfer, and a national e-waste catalog through the I-STEM portal. Institutions like CMET, BARC, and NML are collaborating with industries to deploy eco-friendly recycling technologies. Private players such as Attero have begun aggregating informal setups into formal “mandi-style” recycling networks, aiming to recover metals sustainably. With appropriate regulatory and market support, India could meet up to 70% of its rare earth metal needs domestically within 18 months.

Conclusion

E-waste management lies at the intersection of environmental protection, resource efficiency, and industrial policy. Strengthening the EPR mechanism, integrating informal recyclers, improving traceability, and incentivizing circular design are essential for sustainable growth. Effective e-waste management supports India’s commitments under SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and SDG 13 (Climate Action), and can transform waste into a strategic resource, reinforcing India’s journey toward a green and self-reliant economy.

In News:

• India has proposed the Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) 3 norms, drafted by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), aiming to tighten fuel efficiency standards, reduce vehicular emissions, and promote electric and alternative fuel vehicles.
• First introduced in 2017, CAFE norms regulate fuel consumption and CO? emissions for passenger vehicles weighing up to 3,500 kg, including petrol, diesel, CNG, LPG, hybrid, and electric vehicles.
• The earlier iteration, CAFE 2 (2022-23), capped fuel consumption at 4.78 litres/100 km and CO? emissions at 113 g/km, with penalties for non-compliance.

Need for CAFE 3

Current Indian norms inadvertently favourheavier vehicles like SUVs while imposing stringent targets on smaller cars, unlike international practices in the USA, EU, China, and Japan, where light vehicles enjoy relaxed emission standards. CAFE 3 seeks to align India with global best practices, revive the small car segment, and incentivisegreen mobility, particularly electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids.

Key Features of CAFE 3 Norms

1. Applicability

• Targets M1 category passenger vehicles (seating up to nine people, maximum weight 3,500 kg).
• Non-compliance will attract penalties under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.

2. Efficiency Targets

• Efficiency formula: [0.002 × (W – 1170) + c], measured in petrol-equivalent litres/100 km, where W is fleet weight, 1,170 kg is a fixed constant, 0.002 is a multiplier, and ‘c’ decreases yearly from 3.7264 (FY28) to 3.0139 (FY32).
• Lighter vehicles benefit from easier compliance, motivating manufacturers to focus on small cars.
• Additional relaxation: 3.0 g CO?/km (capped at 9 g/km) for compact cars (<909 kg, ≤1200 cc engine, ≤4,000 mm length).

3. Incentives for EVs and Alternative Fuels

• Super credits: Each EV sold counts three times toward fleet compliance; plug-in hybrids 2.5×, strong hybrids 2×, flex-fuel ethanol vehicles 1.5×.
• Carbon Neutrality Factor (CNF): Offers relaxation based on fuel type (e.g., E20–E30 petrol vehicles 8% CNF; strong hybrids 22.3%).

4. Emissions Pooling

• Up to three manufacturers can form a pool, treated as a single entity for compliance.
• Pool managers are legally responsible for penalties, allowing strategic partnerships, cost-sharing, and smoother adherence to targets.

Policy Complementarities

• GST reforms (GST 2.0) reduced taxes on small cars from 28% to 18%, complementing the relaxation measures under CAFE 3.
• By incentivisingEVs, hybrids, and small vehicles, the norms aim to reduce oil import dependency and advance India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.

Challenges

• Industry adaptation: Transitioning fleets to comply with stricter norms while managing costs.
• Consumer acceptance: Affordability and infrastructure readiness for EVs and hybrids.
• Infrastructure readiness: Charging and fuel infrastructure for alternative vehicles needs significant expansion.

Conclusion

CAFE 3 represents a transformative step in India’s vehicular emission regulation, combining fuel efficiency improvements, emission reductions, and green mobility incentives. By aligning with global practices, reviving the small car segment, and encouraging electric and hybrid vehicles, the norms have the potential to accelerate sustainable transportation while addressing environmental and energy security goals. Successful implementation will require coordinated action between manufacturers, policymakers, and consumers to build a cleaner, efficient, and resilient automotive sector in India.

In News:

India stands at a critical juncture where the pursuit of economic growth must align with environmental sustainability. The transition to a green economy offers an opportunity to reshape the country’s development paradigm—one that integrates ecological balance, inclusive livelihoods, and technological innovation within a landscape-driven framework.

India’s Green Economy: Growth and Scope

India’s bioeconomy has expanded remarkably from $10 billion in 2014 to $165.7 billion in 2024, growing sixteenfold and accounting for 4.25% of the national GDP. This growth, driven by over 10,000 bio-based start-ups, spans biofuels, bioplastics, pharmaceuticals, and bioinformatics. The industrial bioeconomy contributes nearly half the sectoral share, while India’s achievements—such as 20% ethanol blending in petrol and becoming the third-largest pharmaceutical producer by volume—reflect the scale of progress.

A green economy, however, extends beyond bio-based industries. It encompasses low-carbon growth, circular resource use, ecosystem restoration, and inclusive employment. By 2030, it is estimated to create 35 million green jobs, strengthening India’s resilience against climate shocks and enhancing energy security under Aatmanirbhar Bharat.

Challenges in the Green Transition

Despite this momentum, India’s green growth exhibits deep regional and socio-economic disparities. Urban centers like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Gujarat dominate green investments, while the North-Eastern and tribal states contribute less than 6% despite abundant natural resources. This spatial imbalance mirrors unequal access to clean energy, irrigation, and digital infrastructure.

Simultaneously, energy transition dilemmas persist. While renewables are expanding, fossil fuel subsidies—still around 40%—undermine emission reduction efforts. In agriculture, solar pump deployment risks groundwater depletion, highlighting the complexity of balancing environmental and livelihood goals. Hard-to-abate sectors such as steel, cement, and power, which contribute nearly 23% of GHG emissions, face prohibitive costs for green technologies—often four times higher than conventional alternatives.

Social inclusion remains another challenge. Women hold only 11% of rooftop solar jobs, and their share in technical green roles is as low as 1–3%. Similarly, tribal and marginalised communities remain passive beneficiaries rather than active stakeholders in climate action.

Reimagining the Green Economy through Landscapes

A landscape-based approach can make India’s green transition more inclusive and ecologically coherent. Landscapes represent interconnected systems of land, water, biodiversity, and human activity. Integrating these systems through participatory planning—from village to national level—can enhance ecosystem services such as air and water regulation, soil fertility, and climate moderation.

Institutionally, leveraging 2.5 lakh Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and 12 million women-led Self-Help Groups (SHGs) can embed community ownership into green initiatives. Promoting tribal-led bioeconomy models based on non-timber forest produce, agro-waste reuse, and medicinal flora can align conservation with livelihoods.

Technology and fiscal innovation must complement this vision—through green budgeting, public procurement of sustainable products, and expansion of 5G/6G labs for greening digital infrastructure. Decentralised waste management and circular economy practices are vital, especially as urban areas generate 75% of India’s solid waste.

Conclusion

India’s green transformation must evolve from a sectoral to a landscape-driven, community-based model that harmonises economic growth with ecological integrity. Empowering local institutions, mainstreaming gender, and integrating traditional knowledge with modern innovation will be crucial to achieving a just and resilient green future. By 2047, the goal should not merely be higher GDP, but ecological regeneration, social equity, and global climate leadership.

Context:
The detention of climate activist Sonam Wangchuk under the National Security Act (NSA), 1980, has reignited a long-standing debate on the balance between national security and civil liberties in India. Wangchuk, who has been leading the movement for Ladakh’s statehood and Sixth Schedule protections, was detained following alleged provocative speeches that, according to the administration, triggered violent protests in Leh leading to four deaths and several injuries. His case illustrates the continuing tension between state power and individual freedoms under India’s preventive detention framework.

Understanding Preventive Detention in India

Preventive detention refers to the practice of detaining an individual not for a crime already committed, but to prevent them from acting in a manner considered prejudicial to public order, security, or essential supplies. Unlike punitive detention, which follows conviction through due process, preventive detention is anticipatory in nature—aimed at averting potential threats before they materialise.

The Constitutional sanction for preventive detention is provided under Article 22 (Clauses 3–7), which permits Parliament and State legislatures to enact laws allowing such detention. A person can be held for up to three months without approval from an Advisory Board of judges, and longer if such approval is obtained. However, detainees are denied the right to legal counsel before the Advisory Board, and authorities may withhold information on grounds of public interest—limiting transparency and accountability.

Evolution of Preventive Detention Laws

Preventive detention has deep colonial roots, beginning with wartime laws such as the Defence of India Acts and the Rowlatt Act (1919). Post-Independence, the Preventive Detention Act, 1950, institutionalised this power, followed by the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), 1971, which gained notoriety during the Emergency (1975–77). Although MISA was repealed in 1978, preventive detention returned with the National Security Act (NSA), 1980, reflecting the persistence of this legal mechanism in India’s security architecture.

Provisions and Safeguards under the NSA

The NSA empowers the Central and State governments, as well as authorisedDistrict Magistrates and Police Commissioners, to detain individuals to prevent actions “prejudicial to India’s defence, foreign relations, national security, public order, or essential supplies.”

• Detention orders operate like arrest warrants, allowing transfer across states and detention up to 12 months.
• Grounds for detention must be communicated within 5 to 15 days, and the detainee can submit a representation to the government.
• An Advisory Board of High Court judges must review the case within three weeks and order release if “no sufficient cause” exists.

However, no legal representation is allowed before the Board, and the government may withhold crucial information—leaving wide discretion in official hands.

Use and Misuse: Judicial and Public Concerns

Over the decades, NSA has been used in cases involving separatists, radical preachers, gangsters, and protesters. Notable instances include the detention of Amritpal Singh (2023), Bhim Army chief Chandrashekhar Azad (2017), and Dr. Kafeel Khan (2020). Courts have repeatedly intervened in cases of misuse, emphasising that the Act cannot be a substitute for ordinary criminal law. The Supreme Court’s 2012 ruling striking down detention for kerosene black-marketing underscored this misuse.

Critics argue that preventive detention contradicts the spirit of fundamental rights under Articles 19, 21, and 22, allowing incarceration without trial and enabling governments to suppress dissent under the guise of maintaining order. Scholars contend that Article 22 itself legitimises preventive detention, reflecting what Erich Fromm described as a “fear of freedom”—a societal tendency to trade liberty for perceived security.

Conclusion

The National Security Act remains one of India’s most powerful yet controversial laws. While it provides governments with a vital tool to prevent threats to national security and public order, its frequent and often arbitrary invocation erodes constitutional guarantees of liberty and due process.
The detention of Sonam Wangchuk serves as a stark reminder that preventive detention laws, though constitutionally sanctioned, sit uneasily within a democratic framework. India’s challenge lies in ensuring that security imperatives do not eclipse fundamental freedoms, reaffirming the Constitution’s promise of liberty, justice, and accountability.

In News:

Inflation, the sustained rise in general price levels, remains one of the most debated macroeconomic phenomena. While high inflation erodes purchasing power and destabilizes economies, moderate and predictable inflation is often considered essential for sustained growth and fiscal stability. Its impact, however, varies depending on the broader economic context and the balance between price stability and growth objectives.

Understanding Inflation and Its Role

Economists typically define inflation as a result of “too much money chasing too few goods.” Moderate inflation signals expanding demand and healthy economic activity, while very high or negative inflation (deflation) indicates structural imbalances. Central banks, such as the U.S. Federal Reserve and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), usually target a low but positive inflation rate — around 2% — to maintain price stability and incentivize investment.

Mild inflation helps prevent deflation, which discourages spending and investment as consumers postpone purchases in anticipation of falling prices. The British economist John Maynard Keynes argued that a small amount of inflation encourages consumption, supports employment, and sustains aggregate demand. This aligns with the concept of the Phillips Curve, which once suggested a trade-off between inflation and unemployment, though the relationship has weakened in recent decades.

Economic Benefits of Moderate Inflation

A modest level of inflation can stimulate economic activity when idle capacity and underutilized labor exist. Rising prices encourage producers to expand output, generating more employment and income. Borrowers, including businesses and households, also benefit since debts can be repaid with “cheaper” money, thus encouraging borrowing and spending. Fixed-rate homeowners and long-term debtors gain, as the real value of their obligations declines over time.

For governments, inflation contributes positively to nominal GDP growth, the key denominator in fiscal ratios such as the debt-to-GDP ratio and fiscal deficit. Higher nominal GDP, driven partly by price growth, increases tax collections and helps meet revenue and deficit targets. Hence, inflation, within manageable limits, supports both macroeconomic stability and fiscal sustainability.

Challenges of High or Low Inflation

Excessive inflation, however, leads to declining real incomes, uncertainty, and reduced investment. Rising input and borrowing costs can trigger stagflation — a combination of stagnant growth and high inflation. On the other hand, very low inflation, as seen in India recently with CPI inflation at 2.07% (August 2025) and WPI at 0.52%, presents a different set of challenges.

While subdued prices benefit consumers, they constrain the government’s fiscal arithmetic. Lower inflation suppresses nominal GDP growth — the sum of real growth and inflation — reducing tax revenue growth and widening fiscal gaps. The Union Budget 2025–26 projected nominal GDP growth at 10.1%, but with low price levels, actual growth has trailed this target, weakening revenue collection and straining fiscal balances.

Moreover, persistently low inflation can reflect weak demand and investment sentiment. Although corporate profits have risen due to falling input costs, private capital expenditure remains sluggish, suggesting that firms are not reinvesting profits into productive capacity — a sign of demand-side weakness rather than efficiency gains.

Conclusion

Inflation’s impact on an economy depends on its source, magnitude, and persistence. Moderate inflation supports economic dynamism, government finances, and debt sustainability. However, extremes on either side — hyperinflation or deflation — can destabilize the macroeconomic framework. For India, the policy challenge lies in maintaining a delicate balance: ensuring that inflation stays within the target range to protect consumers while sustaining enough price growth to support investment, job creation, and fiscal health.

In News:

The Supreme Court of India is currently examining a Presidential reference on whether fixed timelines can be prescribed for Governors and the President in giving assent to Bills passed by State legislatures. The reference arises from growing concerns over delays in assent, which have triggered debates about the balance of power, federalism, and accountability within India’s constitutional framework.

Constitutional Provisions

Under Article 200 of the Constitution, when a Bill is passed by a State legislature, it is presented to the Governor for assent. The Governor may:

1. Grant assent.
2. Withhold assent.
3. Reserve the Bill for the President’s consideration.
4. Return the Bill (if not a Money Bill) with a message for reconsideration.

If the legislature passes the Bill again, the Governor is constitutionally obliged to grant assent. Article 201 governs the President’s assent to Bills reserved by Governors. Notably, neither Article prescribes a timeframe for decision-making, allowing for indefinite delays, which some States view as a de facto pocket veto.

The Current Debate

States such as Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Punjab, and Telangana have raised complaints about Governors withholding or delaying assent, often stalling critical legislative reforms. The Supreme Court is tasked with determining whether judicially enforceable timelines can be set to prevent such inaction, while ensuring the Governor’s discretion is respected.

Proponents argue that indefinite delays undermine parliamentary democracy and the functioning of elected governments. Critics caution that imposing strict timelines could limit constitutional discretion and upset the delicate Centre-State balance. The Union government has maintained that Governors operate within their constitutional mandate and that delays may result from the need for scrutiny or consultation with the Centre.

Judicial Precedents

Earlier rulings, including Shamsher Singh v. State of Punjab (1974) and NabamRebia v. Deputy Speaker (2016), emphasized that Governors are generally bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, except in exceptional circumstances. The current reference under Article 143 seeks to clarify whether inaction can be constitutionally limited through prescribed timelines, ensuring accountability without undermining constitutional checks.

Implications for Federalism

1. Strengthening Legislative Authority: Time-bound assent would reinforce the role of elected State legislatures, reducing the scope for executive interference.
2. Preventing Political Deadlocks: Clear timelines could mitigate friction between Governors and State governments, facilitating smoother legislative functioning.
3. Judicial Oversight: The Supreme Court’s intervention could clarify constitutional ambiguities affecting Centre-State relations, setting a precedent for other offices where delays impact governance.
4. Balancing Discretion and Accountability: A measured approach could preserve the Governor’s discretionary powers while ensuring responsiveness to elected governments.

Conclusion

The question of whether timelines can be fixed for Governors and the President is more than a procedural issue—it reflects the tensions inherent in India’s federal design. Governors are intended as neutral constitutional authorities, yet their actions are often perceived through the prism of partisan politics. By addressing this grey area, the Supreme Court has an opportunity to redefine Centre-State dynamics, strengthen legislative authority, and enhance accountability within India’s parliamentary democracy. The ruling will have far-reaching implications for federal governance, political neutrality, and the balance of power in the legislative process.

In News:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is reshaping the global technological and economic order, influencing sectors from healthcare to defence. For India, AI represents both a transformative development tool and a strategic domain crucial for economic competitiveness and national security.

India’s Position in the Global AI Landscape

India has entered the AI race with significant momentum, backed by a vast digital ecosystem and growing policy support. The government’s India AI Mission, with an outlay of ?10,372 crore, seeks to enhance AI infrastructure, computing power, and research capacity. With over one billion smartphone users and 20 billion monthly UPI transactions, India offers a data-rich environment that can power AI development at scale.

However, compared to the United States ($20 billion) and China ($30 billion) in AI investments during 2024, India’s funding remains modest. While India boasts a talent base of over 18 million software professionals and has integrated AI into school curricula, it still lags in advanced research output and patent generation.

Opportunities for India’s Development

AI holds immense potential to drive India’s socio-economic transformation:

• Healthcare: AI-assisted diagnostics and predictive models can enhance early disease detection, telemedicine outreach, and epidemic forecasting.
• Education: Initiatives like the Bhashini Project enable real-time language translation, improving accessibility and inclusivity in classrooms and governance.
• Agriculture: AI-driven precision farming and weather-based advisories can help small farmers optimise productivity and manage climate risks.
• Finance: Tools such as “Hello UPI” and AI-based fraud detection can deepen rural financial inclusion and strengthen digital security.
• Disaster Management: States like Odisha employ AI in cyclone prediction and geospatial mapping, showcasing AI’s role in saving lives and resources.

Together, these applications align with India’s broader developmental goals of inclusion, sustainability, and resilience.

Challenges in India’s AI Ecosystem

Despite its promise, India faces structural and institutional constraints:

• Infrastructure Deficit: Limited access to high-end GPUs and slow expansion of data centres constrain computational capacity.
• R&D Weakness: India contributes barely 1.4% of global AI research papers and produces less than 2% of global AI PhDs, reflecting a shallow innovation base.
• Regulatory Lag: The outdated IT Act (2000) continues to govern digital activities, lacking provisions for algorithmic transparency, accountability, and data ethics.
• Talent Gap: The focus on short-term certification courses produces surface-level skills rather than deep AI expertise.
• Geopolitical Pressure: The US, EU, and China lead in developing Large Language Models (LLMs), while India risks remaining a consumer market rather than a producer of foundational AI technologies.

Way Forward

A robust AI ecosystem requires a multi-dimensional approach:

• Strengthen Research and Innovation: Enhance public funding for fundamental AI research and incentivise private R&D.
• Human Capital Development: Expand AI training beyond elite institutions and develop teacher capacity for advanced AI pedagogy.
• Regulatory Reforms: Enact a Digital India Act and an AI-specific ethical charter inspired by the EU AI Act, ensuring safety without stifling innovation.
• Public–Private Collaboration: Establish AI innovation hubs focused on healthcare, agriculture, and sustainability.
• Global Partnerships: Engage with international initiatives and leverage India’s leadership in G20 and BRICS to promote responsible AI governance.

Conclusion

India’s AI trajectory stands at a decisive juncture. With its digital depth, demographic advantage, and policy intent, the country can harness AI to drive inclusive growth and global leadership. Yet, without addressing gaps in research, regulation, and ethics, India risks being a user rather than a creator in the AI revolution. Balancing innovation with responsibility will determine whether India can truly emerge as a leading power in the AI-driven century.

In News:

Rivers are the lifelines of India, sustaining agriculture, industry, and millions of livelihoods. Yet, rapid urbanisation, untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff have severely degraded many river ecosystems. According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), river pollution remains a critical environmental and public health challenge.

Status of River Pollution

The CPCB’s 2023 assessment indicates a marginal reduction in polluted river stretches. Out of 271 rivers across 32 states and Union Territories, 296 stretches were identified as polluted, down from 311 in the previous assessment. Maharashtra continues to report the highest number of polluted stretches (54), followed by Kerala (31), Madhya Pradesh and Manipur (18 each), and Karnataka (14).

Polluted stretches are defined as two or more consecutive locations where the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) exceeds 3 mg/L, rendering water unfit for bathing. BOD measures the oxygen consumed by microorganisms in decomposing organic matter, serving as a key indicator of organic pollution. The CPCB classifies polluted stretches into five priority categories, with Priority I (BOD >30 mg/L) representing the most contaminated stretches requiring urgent remediation. Currently, 37 stretches fall under Priority I, including the Yamuna (Delhi), Sabarmati (Ahmedabad), Chambal (Madhya Pradesh), and Tungabhadra (Karnataka).

However, despite marginal improvements, certain rivers have recorded deterioration in water quality. Notable examples include the Jhelum (J&K), Ganga and Sikrahna (Bihar), Hasdeo and Mahanadi (Chhattisgarh), Cauvery and Tungabhadra (Karnataka), Periyar (Kerala), and Krishna (Telangana).

Major Causes

• Untreated Sewage: Urban centres generate over 72,000 million litres/day (MLD) of sewage, with only 30% treated.
• Industrial Effluents: Chemical, textile, and other industrial hubs discharge toxic waste despite regulatory frameworks.
• Agricultural Runoff: Fertilisers and pesticides enter rivers during monsoons, affecting aquatic ecosystems.
• Encroachments and Sand Mining: These activities degrade riverbeds and floodplains, compounding pollution impacts.

Impacts

Polluted rivers compromise aquatic biodiversity, pose health risks via waterborne diseases, and lead to economic losses in fisheries and agriculture. Social unrest, as seen along the Yamuna and Ganga, underscores the public concern over deteriorating river health.

Institutional Interventions

In 2018, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) mandated states and the Centre to prepare river rejuvenation action plans. The CPCB, in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards, monitors water quality at over 2,155 locations on 645 rivers under the National Water Quality Monitoring Programme. Recommended measures include catchment and basin management, floodplain protection, and sewage treatment.

While initiatives such as the Namami Gange Mission, Jal Jeevan Mission, and promotion of decentralised sewage treatment plants show progress, persistent infrastructure gaps, coordination failures, and urbanisation pressures remain major challenges.

Way Forward

Sustainable river rejuvenation requires holistic approaches—strengthening sewage treatment, enforcing industrial compliance, controlling agricultural runoff, and fostering community participation. Integrating scientific monitoring with participatory governance can help restore rivers as ecological lifelines while ensuring water security, public health, and environmental sustainability.

In News:

The United States government has announced a sweeping change to its H-1B visa programme, introducing a $100,000 annual entry fee per visa effective September 21, 2025. Framed as a measure to protect American workers, this move has significant geopolitical and economic implications, particularly for India, whose citizens constitute over 70% of all H-1B beneficiaries annually.

What the New Rule Entails

Under the new proclamation signed by President Donald Trump, no petition filed for an H-1B worker outside the US will be approved unless the sponsoring employer pays the $100,000 fee upfront. Applications without proof of payment will be denied at consular processing. The rule applies to new entrants or those seeking re-entry after travel, though workers already in the US on valid H-1B status are exempt.

The order, valid for 12 months with scope for review, also directs the Department of Labor to raise wage levels for H-1B jobs and asks the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to prioritise petitions offering higher salaries. A discretionary clause empowers DHS to waive the fee for specific individuals, companies, or entire industries if deemed in the “national interest.” However, the proclamation does not define which sectors qualify—though healthcare, defence, and critical technology are likely candidates.

Rationale and Political Context

Immigration has become a central and polarising issue in US politics. Public concern on immigration rose from 2.1% in 2012 to 14.6% in 2024 as a top voter priority. Trump’s political narrative has long linked immigration—both low-skilled and skilled—to job displacement and wage depression among the American working class. The H-1B programme, originally designed to attract top global talent in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields, is now portrayed by nativist factions as a vehicle for outsourcing and wage suppression.

Data from the US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) indicate that nearly 70% of H-1B approvals for Indian workers in FY2023 were for salaries below $100,000, while the median US IT salary was $104,420.

Economic and Industrial Impact

The fee fundamentally alters the cost structure of hiring global talent. The new surcharge, in addition to existing statutory fees, transforms the H-1B from a skill-mobility programme into a premium channel accessible mainly to top-tier corporations or sectors granted exemptions.

Big Tech firms such as Amazon, Microsoft, Meta, Google, and Apple—already the largest H-1B sponsors—face millions in additional costs. Indian IT service giants like Infosys, TCS, Wipro, and HCL, who rely on the visa for onsite client delivery, are particularly vulnerable. The policy may push more work to offshore hubs in Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Pune, reinforcing India’s role as a global back-office and development centre rather than an onsite service provider.

Startups, universities, and research labs, often operating on tight budgets, may scale back recruitment or face disruption to innovation and research projects if waivers are not granted.

Implications for India

For India, this measure could limit opportunities for young professionals transitioning from student visas (OPT) to H-1Bs, while families already in the US may face travel restrictions and uncertainty. However, it may also spur reshoring of tech investment to India, as multinational firms expand local operations to mitigate costs.

Conclusion

The $100,000 H-1B fee marks a decisive shift in US immigration policy—from selective reform to fiscal deterrence. While it may serve short-term political optics of job protectionism, it risks undermining America’s long-standing advantage in global innovation. For India, the challenge lies in turning this disruption into opportunity—by strengthening domestic tech ecosystems, skilling talent, and positioning itself as a preferred global innovation hub amid shifting international labour dynamics.

In News:

The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India released the State Finances Publication 2025, providing a comprehensive assessment of revenue, expenditure, debt, and fiscal sustainability across India’s 28 states. The report highlights critical trends in committed expenditure, salary and subsidy bills, and public debt, offering insights for policy planning and fiscal management.

Salary and Subsidy Expenditure

• Over the last decade (2013-14 to 2022-23), states’ salary bills have grown 2.5 times, reaching ?16.6 lakh crore, forming the largest component of committed expenditure.
• Subsidy spending, defined as day-to-day operations that do not create or enhance assets, more than trebled to ?3.09 lakh crore, accounting for 8.61% of total revenue expenditure.
• The distribution of subsidy expenditure is highly uneven. In 2022-23, Punjab, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan spent over 10% of their total expenditure on subsidies, with Punjab at 17%, the highest among states. By contrast, 10 states, including Sikkim, Nagaland, Kerala, and Goa, reported subsidies below 2%, and Arunachal Pradesh recorded no subsidy spending.

Committed Expenditure Patterns

Committed expenditure, comprising salaries, pensions, and interest payments, constituted 43.49% of states’ revenue expenditure in FY 2022-23. The share varied widely across states:

• Nagaland: 74%
• Kerala: 63%
• Tamil Nadu: 51%
• Andhra Pradesh: 42%
• Telangana: 41%
• Karnataka: 33%
• Maharashtra: 32%

In total, 15 states reported committed expenditure exceeding 50% of revenue expenditure, seven between 40–50%, and six below 40%. The report indicates that committed expenditure and subsidies together have frequently exceeded states’ own tax revenues, reaching 102% in 2013-14 and 134% in 2020-21, signaling fiscal pressure and limited flexibility.

Public Debt and Fiscal Risk

Public debt has risen 3.4 times over the last decade, reaching ?59.6 lakh crore, approximately 23% of the combined Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP). This increase in debt, coupled with rising committed expenditure, poses medium-term fiscal risks, necessitating prudent fiscal management and reforms.

Union Tax Devolution and Revenue Sources

States’ major revenue sources include own taxes and non-tax revenues, grants-in-aid, and their share of Union taxes. Between 2013-14 and 2022-23, states’ average share of Union taxes remained around 27% of total revenue receipts, with FY 2022-23 showing the same share.

Distribution of devolved taxes is concentrated:

• Top 5 states (UP, Bihar, MP, West Bengal, Maharashtra) received 50% of devolved taxes.
• Southern states’ shares: Tamil Nadu 4.08%, Andhra Pradesh 4.02%, Karnataka 3.65%, Telangana 2.07%, and Kerala 1.93%.

Policy Implications

The CAG report underscores the rising fiscal pressures on states due to expanding salary bills, high subsidies, and growing debt. With committed expenditure consuming a large portion of revenue, states have limited fiscal space for development and capital investment. The findings highlight the need for targeted reforms in public expenditure management, subsidy rationalisation, and debt sustainability, ensuring that states can maintain service delivery without compromising fiscal health.

In News:

• The Central Government, through the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG), has decided to study and replicate Andhra Pradesh’s “WhatsApp Governance Model”, recognized as a national best practice in e-governance.
• The announcement came during the 28th National Conference on e-Governance 2025, held in Visakhapatnam on the theme “Viksit Bharat: Civil Service and Digital Transformation.”

About Mana Mitra

• Mana Mitra, launched by the Andhra Pradesh government in January 2025, is India’s first WhatsApp-based governance platform.
• It integrates 36 departments and provides 738 citizen services through a single WhatsApp number — 9552300009 — ensuring accessibility, efficiency, and transparency in public service delivery.

Objectives

• Ease of Access: Deliver services through WhatsApp, a widely used platform, reducing citizens’ dependence on physical offices.
• Transparency & Trust: Digital certificates are issued with QR-coded verification, minimizing fraud and fake documentation.
• Inclusivity: Brings governance to the mobile phones of rural and remote citizens, fostering last-mile digital inclusion.

How It Works

• Single-Number Access: Citizens initiate a chat by sending “Hi” on WhatsApp.
• Menu-Driven Services: A chatbot guides users through departments and available services—education, revenue, endowments, RTC, tourism, and health.
• Instant Document Delivery: Documents such as income and caste certificates, hall tickets, and tax receipts are generated digitally with verifiable QR codes.
• Real-Time Dashboard: Tracks service delivery, ensuring accountability and performance monitoring.
• Next-Gen Tech Integration: Future phases will use AI chatbots, voice-based assistance, and blockchain authentication for secure transactions.

Key Features

• Wide Coverage: 738 services across 36 departments.
• Security: Built-in encryption and QR verification to prevent misuse.
• Partnership with Meta: Ensures robust backend infrastructure and global-grade security.
• Scalability: Phase-II aims to include AI, voice, and real-time grievance redressal systems.

Significance and Impacts

• Citizen-Centric Governance: Empowers citizens by providing services at their fingertips, in line with the vision of Minimum Government, Maximum Governance.
• Administrative Efficiency: Reduces paperwork, manual processing, and delays through automation.
• Cost and Time Savings: Citizens save travel and administrative costs; departments save on manpower and logistics.
• Digital Inclusion: Leverages WhatsApp’s nearly 500 million Indian users, ensuring access even in areas with limited digital literacy.
• Model for Replication: DARPG recognized it as a national model to be documented and replicated across all states.

Challenges

• Digital Divide: Connectivity issues in remote and tribal regions can hinder equitable access.
• Cybersecurity Threats: Phishing, fake accounts, or data breaches must be prevented through strong encryption and verification systems.
• Capacity Building: Frontline staff need training for effective digital grievance handling.
• Data Privacy: Must comply with the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023.
• Scalability and Reliability: Systems must withstand heavy user loads without technical failures.

Way Forward

• AI & Voice Integration: Enable predictive service delivery and multilingual assistance.
• Strengthen Cybersecurity: Introduce two-factor authentication and blockchain-based certification.
• Enhance Digital Literacy: Awareness campaigns targeting rural, elderly, and marginalized populations.
• Institutionalization: Provide legislative backing to make WhatsApp governance legally accountable.
• Nationwide Replication: Integrate with platforms like DigiLocker, UPI, and CoWIN to create a unified digital service ecosystem.

The 28th National Conference on e-Governance 2025

• Venue: Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
• Organizers: DARPG and the Ministry of Electronics & IT in collaboration with the AP Government.
• Theme:Viksit Bharat: Civil Service and Digital Transformation.
• Participants: Delegates from 28 States and 8 Union Territories, including 70 speakers.
• Focus Areas:
  • AI for Viksit Bharat: Driving inclusive and scalable solutions.
  • Cybersecurity and digital sovereignty in e-governance.
  • Gram Panchayat-level innovations and agri-stack development.
  • Role of subsea cables and AI data centers in digital infrastructure.

Conclusion

Mana Mitra represents a transformative step in India’s digital governance journey, bridging citizens and the state through a simple yet powerful medium — WhatsApp. By ensuring transparency, efficiency, and inclusivity, it exemplifies how technology can democratize governance. If successfully replicated nationwide, this model could become a cornerstone of Viksit Bharat 2047, bringing governance truly “to the people’s fingertips.”

In News:

• The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) — India’s apex body for biomedical and health research — has introduced the Impact of Research and Innovation Scale (IRIS) to systematically measure the impact of biomedical, public health, and allied research projects.
• As India’s foremost grants-giving and policy-shaping institution in health research, ICMR’s adoption of IRIS is expected to significantly influence the country’s scientific and academic landscape.

Objective and Design

IRIS seeks to create a uniform and quantifiable metric to evaluate research outcomes. It introduces the concept of “publication-equivalents” (PEs) as the unit of measurement.

• A peer-reviewed research paper or systematic review carries 1 PE.
• A paper cited in policies or guidelines earns 10 PEs.
• A patent is valued at 5 PEs, while a commercially used device attracts 20 PEs.

By linking these metrics to funding and recognition, IRIS aims to encourage outcome-oriented research, policy translation, and innovation across disciplines such as biochemistry, clinical medicine, public health, and biomedical engineering.

Potential Benefits

• Standardisation of Evaluation:IRIS offers a common yardstick across scientific domains, enabling fairer comparisons of research productivity and impact.
• Recognition Beyond Citations:Unlike traditional citation-based indices, IRIS recognises diverse contributions such as patents, policy impact, and product development — providing a broader view of research value.
• Policy and Funding Integration:The framework can help align funding priorities with national health goals by linking measurable impact to resource allocation, thus encouraging translation of research into public health outcomes.
• Encouragement for Innovation:The model rewards applied research, particularly innovations that reach commercialization or large-scale public use, which may accelerate India’s biomedical innovation ecosystem.

Concerns and Limitations

Despite its intent, the framework faces methodological and ethical challenges.

• Conceptual Weakness: The PE values appear arbitrary and lack robust theoretical justification. Influential works — such as commentaries or perspective papers — receive zero PEs, despite their historical significance in shaping medical thought.
• Skewed Incentives: By assigning higher PEs to commercial devices (20) than to policy-level impact (10), IRIS risks overemphasizing commercialization at the cost of basic science and public health research. Transformative community-based interventions like India’s Home-Based Neonatal Care or nutrition trials in tuberculosis (RATIONS) may be undervalued.
• Ethical Concerns: The model could encourage metric manipulation or narrow research choices, especially in an ecosystem where research integrity is still evolving.
• Erosion of Science as a Public Good: Over-commercialization may undermine the ethos of research serving societal well-being rather than profit motives.

Way Forward

For IRIS to gain legitimacy, transparency, inclusivity, and peer validation are essential. Experts suggest conducting a national-level Delphi study to achieve consensus among researchers on PE assignment. Moreover, independent data verification and periodic review of the framework can ensure its adaptability and credibility.

Conclusion

Measuring research impact is inherently complex, and no single metric can capture the multifaceted nature of scientific contribution. While IRIS holds promise in standardizing research evaluation and fostering innovation, it must balance quantitative assessment with qualitative judgment, ensuring that India’s public health priorities and the spirit of science as a public good remain at its core. The success of IRIS will depend not merely on what it measures, but on whether it nurtures a research culture driven by ethics, relevance, and societal impact.

In News:

The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India has released a first-of-its-kind decadal report (2013–14 to 2022–23) analysing the fiscal health of Indian states, highlighting a worrying surge in public debt and its implications for fiscal sustainability and cooperative federalism.

Understanding Public Debt

• Public debt arises when government expenditure exceeds revenue from taxes and other receipts, prompting borrowing to bridge the fiscal gap. For states, such debt includes liabilities under the Consolidated Fund of the State, comprising internal debt and loans and advances from the Centre.
• Internal debt consists of marketable securities like government bonds and treasury bills, and non-marketable debt such as loans from financial institutions like LIC and NABARD or the Reserve Bank’s Ways and Means Advances (WMA).
• The Debt-to-GSDP ratio is a key indicator of fiscal sustainability, reflecting a state’s capacity to service its debt. A higher ratio implies greater fiscal stress.
• The NK Singh Committee on FRBM (2016) recommended a combined general government debt ceiling of 60% of GDP — 40% for the Centre and 20% for states.

Key Findings of the CAG Report

• The CAG report reveals that the aggregate public debt of 28 states trebled over the past decade — from ?17.57 lakh crore in 2013–14 to ?59.60 lakh crore in 2022–23.
• As a share of combined GSDP, debt rose from 16.66% to 22.96%, with state debt accounting for 22.17% of India’s GDP in FY 2022–23.

Inter-State Variations

Fiscal vulnerability varies widely:

• Highest debt-to-GSDP ratios: Punjab (40.35%), Nagaland (37.15%), and West Bengal (33.70%).
• Lowest ratios: Odisha (8.45%), Maharashtra (14.64%), and Gujarat (16.37%).
  As of March 2023, eight states had debt exceeding 30% of GSDP, while six states maintained it below 20%.

Debt Sustainability and Composition

• The states’ debt-to-revenue receipts ratio ranged from 128% (2014–15) to 191% (2020–21), averaging about 150% of total receipts.
• The debt-to-GSDP ratio oscillated between 17–25%, with a sharp rise during the COVID-19 pandemic year (2020–21) due to falling GSDP and increased borrowing for relief and GST compensation.
• Major sources of debt include open market borrowings, RBI advances, institutional loans, and back-to-back loans from the Centre in lieu of GST shortfall and capital assistance.

Fiscal Management Concerns

• The report flags a violation of the “golden rule of borrowing”, which stipulates that governments should borrow only for capital formation, not to finance revenue expenditure.
• Eleven states, including Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal, used borrowings to fund current expenses.
• In Andhra Pradesh, only 17% of borrowings went to capital expenditure; in Punjab, 26%.

Such practices threaten fiscal sustainability, crowd out productive investments, and risk pushing states into a debt trap, thereby undermining macroeconomic stability.

Way Forward

• Fiscal Discipline: States must prioritise borrowing for productive infrastructure and avoid financing recurring expenditure.
• Debt Management Reforms:Operationalising the Public Debt Management Agency (PDMA) could ensure transparency and better coordination in debt operations.
• Revenue Strengthening: Enhancing tax buoyancy, rationalising subsidies, and diversifying revenue bases can reduce dependence on central transfers.
• Adherence to FRBM Targets: States should align fiscal deficit and debt ratios with FRBM norms to ensure long-term sustainability.
• Institutional Oversight: Strengthening State Finance Commissions and CAG monitoring can promote accountable and sustainable fiscal federalism.

Conclusion

The surge in state-level debt underscores the growing strain on subnational fiscal capacity. While borrowing is essential for development, unchecked debt accumulation and non-productive spending threaten fiscal stability. Ensuring fiscal prudence, efficient debt management, and adherence to reform frameworks like FRBM are vital to preserving India’s long-term macroeconomic resilience and cooperative federal balance.

In News:

India’s media and entertainment (M&E) industry is experiencing rapid digital transformation, fueled by rising global collaborations and the growing influence of independent creators. To channel this momentum and establish India as a global content hub, the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (I&B) launched WAVES Bazaar in January 2025—a first-of-its-kind hybrid content marketplace that connects creators, investors, and distributors across various media segments.

Now entering its second phase, WAVES Bazaar is expanding with AI-driven matchmaking, online pitching sessions, and secure viewing rooms—initiatives aimed at strengthening India’s creative ecosystem and democratizing access for new talent.

About WAVES Bazaar

WAVES Bazaar serves as a digital platform bringing together diverse stakeholders from films, television, animation, gaming, music, radio, advertising, and podcasts. It allows creators to network, pitch ideas, and collaborate with OTT platforms, production houses, distributors, and financiers.

Key Features of the Second Phase

• Online Pitching and Viewing Rooms:Budding creators will now be able to pitch directly to production houses, OTT platforms, and investors through virtual sessions. The addition of secure online viewing rooms will allow content buyers to preview projects safely, ensuring transparency and intellectual property protection.
• AI-Driven Matchmaking and Profiling:Artificial Intelligence will enhance the platform’s efficiency by recommending suitable collaborators—such as financiers, distributors, or genre-specific buyers—based on project details. The system will also support automated profile building, pitch deck creation, and project scoring, guiding creators to improve their market visibility.
• Skill Development and Knowledge Hub:The second phase introduces a knowledge ecosystem comprising webinars and masterclasses by industry experts. These sessions aim to bridge the knowledge gap for emerging creators and provide mentorship on project development, financing, and global trends.
• Global Outreach and Co-Production Opportunities:WAVES Bazaar will expand its international footprint through delegations and participation in global festivals. It also seeks to strengthen co-production treaties with partner countries, promoting cross-border collaboration and investment in India’s creative sectors.

Significance for India’s Creative Economy

The initiative aligns with India’s ambition to become a global content hub by enabling equal opportunities for small and independent creators. It aims to diversify creative exports beyond films into music, gaming, animation, podcasts, and short-form content, while also enhancing India’s soft power and digital cultural economy.

By integrating technology, mentorship, and market access, WAVES Bazaar could emerge as the central gateway for Indian creative exports, fostering innovation and sustainable growth in the sector.

Challenges and Way Forward

While the portal’s potential is immense, its success will depend on addressing data security, ensuring inclusive access for regional creators, and maintaining long-term international partnerships. If implemented effectively, WAVES Bazaar 2.0 can position India as a leading creative powerhouse, bridging the gap between talent and opportunity in the global digital age.

In News:

The 2025 monsoon season has witnessed intense and destructive rainfall across North India, particularly in the Himalayan states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir. Cloudbursts, landslides, and flash floods have resulted in widespread devastation, exposing the growing vulnerability of India’s mountain ecosystems and urban regions. The intensification of monsoon rainfall can be traced to the complex interplay of global climate change, regional topography, and anthropogenic factors such as urbanisation and deforestation.

Scientific Basis of Intensified Rainfall

Dry regions like northwestern India lie at the confluence of tropical and extratropical systems. Moist monsoon currents from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea increasingly collide with western disturbances, producing strong atmospheric instability and torrential rainfall. This interaction has become more frequent as climate change alters the behaviour of mid-latitude westerlies.

Global warming weakens and destabilises the jet stream, allowing westerly troughs to extend southward and interact with the monsoon more often. A warmer atmosphere holds more moisture, intensifying the hydrological cycle and leading to heavier downpours. These processes have made events like the recent Udhampur (630 mm in 24 hours) and Leh (59 mm in two days) rainfall episodes more common, even in regions historically considered semi-arid.

Why the Himalayas Are More Vulnerable

The Himalayas sit at the convergence of moist tropical monsoon winds and mid-latitude westerlies, creating ideal conditions for orographic uplift and deep convection that trigger extreme precipitation and cloudbursts. When moisture-laden air is forced up steep slopes, it cools rapidly and condenses into intense, localised storms.

Climate change compounds this natural vulnerability. Rapid Arctic warming is weakening the jet stream, causing slower and more meandering weather systems that linger over regions, leading to prolonged heavy rainfall. Similar dynamics have been linked to the Pakistan floods (2010), Germany (2021), and West Asia (2024) events.

In mountainous terrain, rainfall that would be manageable in coastal plains becomes catastrophic — flash floods and landslides occur as water cascades downhill, carrying debris, loose soil, and boulders. Over the last month, such incidents have been recorded in Mandi, Kullu, Dharali, Tharali, and Jammu, destroying homes and cutting off roads.

Challenges in Prediction and Preparedness

Despite technological advances, forecasting cloudbursts remains challenging. Current systems employ Doppler Weather Radars (DWRs), satellites (INSAT-3D/3DR, GPM, Himawari), rain gauges, and high-resolution numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. However, coverage in Himalayan terrain is sparse, satellite resolution is coarse, and models require ultra-fine grid scales (<1 km) with precise initial conditions.

Improved dense observation networks, enhanced process-based models, and integration of AI/ML techniques for real-time data assimilation are critical for reliable nowcasting.

Urban and Developmental Pressures

Rapid urbanisation, deforestation, and construction on unstable slopes have magnified the flood risks in both mountain towns and plains cities. Urban drainage systems, designed for rainfall of only 10–20 mm/hour, are ill-equipped for cloudbursts exceeding 100 mm/hour. Concretised surfaces increase runoff, while encroachments block natural drainage, turning heavy rain into urban deluges.

Mitigation demands a multi-pronged approach—redesigning stormwater systems, enforcing land-use regulations, restoring natural water channels, and incorporating climate risk assessments in infrastructure planning.

Conclusion

The increasing frequency of extreme rainfall and cloudbursts in India’s Himalayan and urban regions reflects the intersection of climate dynamics, fragile topography, and unsustainable development. Strengthening early warning systems, integrating scientific forecasting with local planning, and promoting climate-resilient infrastructure are essential to mitigate future disasters. The Himalayan crisis underscores a broader reality—climate change is no longer a distant threat but an unfolding challenge demanding immediate, coordinated action.

In News:

The Government of India has notified the Central Civil Services (Implementation of the Unified Pension Scheme under the National Pension System) Rules, 2025, in the official gazette. The rules, issued by the Department of Pension and Pensioners’ Welfare (DoPPW), operationalize the Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) introduced earlier in April 2025 and regulate service matters and retirement benefits for Central Government employees opting for it under the National Pension System (NPS).

Evolution of Pension Systems in India

• Historically, Central Government employees appointed before January 1, 2004 were covered under the Old Pension Scheme (OPS), a defined-benefit system guaranteeing 50% of the last drawn basic pay without employee contribution. Employees joining after this date were brought under the National Pension System (NPS)—a market-linked, contributory framework where the pension depends on corpus accumulation and market returns.
• In response to persistent demands to restore the security of OPS while maintaining fiscal prudence, the Union Cabinet approved the Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) in August 2024. Effective from April 1, 2025, it offers a middle ground between the assured benefits of OPS and the sustainability of NPS.

Salient Features of the Unified Pension Scheme

The UPS guarantees an assured pension of 50% of the average basic pay of the last 12 months before retirement, provided the employee has completed at least 25 years of service. In the event of the pensioner’s death, the spouse is entitled to 60% of the pension.

• Contribution pattern: Both employee and employer contribute 10% of basic pay plus DA, while the government adds an additional 8.5% to create a pooled corpus ensuring assured payouts.
• Minimum pension: ?10,000 per month after 10 years of service.
• Lump-sum benefit: One-tenth of the last basic pay plus DA for every six months of service.
• Ineligibility: Employees dismissed, removed, or compulsorily retired as a penalty are excluded from UPS benefits.

This structure blends assured returns with shared contributions, balancing financial security for employees and fiscal discipline for the government.

Switch Facility: UPS–NPS Flexibility

The 2025 Rules provide employees a one-time switch option between the two schemes:

• Employees under UPS may switch to NPS once—but cannot revert to UPS thereafter.
• The option must be exercised at least one year before superannuation or three months before voluntary retirement (VRS).
• The switch is prohibited in cases involving dismissal, removal, or ongoing disciplinary action.
• Those not exercising the option within the stipulated time (September 30, 2025) will continue under UPS.
• Employees switching to NPS will receive its benefits plus a 4% differential contribution.

The provision seeks to ensure informed choice and flexibility in retirement planning.

Implementation and Challenges

Though 23.94 lakh employees are eligible to opt for UPS, only around 40,000 have done so. The DoPPW is conducting awareness campaigns to clarify benefits, yet many employees perceive UPS as less attractive than the non-contributory OPS. Employee associations, including the Central Secretariat Service Forum, have continued to advocate for a full return to the old system.

Significance

The Unified Pension Scheme represents a recalibration of India’s pension architecture, merging assured post-retirement income with contributory discipline. It aims to protect employees from market volatility while containing long-term fiscal liabilities. Through the CCS (UPS) Rules, 2025, the government has institutionalized a flexible, transparent, and sustainable framework, marking an important step in public financial management and social security reform.

In News:

The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) recently announced a set of comprehensive reforms aimed at improving foreign investment inflows, easing IPO norms for large issuers, strengthening governance in market infrastructure institutions (MIIs), and promoting financial inclusion. These reforms are introduced amid heightened global uncertainty, with foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) withdrawing over ?63,500 crore from Indian markets since July 2025 due to weak earnings, high valuations, and international trade tensions.

SWAGAT-FI: Single Window Access for Foreign Investors

A cornerstone of SEBI’s reforms is the Single Window Automatic &Generalised Access for Trusted Foreign Investors (SWAGAT-FI) framework, designed to simplify investment access for FPIs and Foreign Venture Capital Investors (FVCIs).

Eligibility and Scope:

• Sovereign wealth funds, central banks, regulated public retail funds (mutual funds, insurance companies, pension funds).
• Existing FPIs meeting criteria can migrate to SWAGAT-FI status.

Features:

• Unified registration and KYC cycle, reducing repeated compliance.
• Exemption from the 50% cap on contributions by NRIs, OCIs, and resident Indians.
• Simplified access through the India Market Access portal, reducing regulatory complexity.
• Implementation over a six-month timeline, aiming to restore investor confidence and enhance India’s global competitiveness.

Relaxed IPO Norms for Large Companies

To encourage large issuers to raise capital efficiently:

• Companies with market capitalization of ?1–5 lakh crore must now offer 2.75–2.8% of post-issue market cap, down from 5%.
• Minimum public offer for mega-IPOs raised to ?6,250 crore.
• Public shareholding timeline relaxed: Firms with <15% float at listing get 10 years to meet 25% minimum, and those with ≥15% float get 5 years.
• Anchor investor quota increased from one-third to 40%, reserving one-third for domestic mutual funds and the rest for life insurers and pension funds.

These measures help promoters reduce immediate dilution while facilitating broad investor participation.

Strengthened Governance in Market Infrastructure Institutions

SEBI has introduced structural reforms to improve transparency and accountability in exchanges and clearing corporations:

• Two executive directors appointed to oversee critical operations (trading, clearing, settlement) and regulatory compliance (risk, investor grievances).
• Defined roles and responsibilities for Managing Directors and Key Managerial Personnel to enhance succession planning.
• Scale-based thresholds introduced for material related-party transactions.
• Separate AIF schemes for accredited investors with flexible compliance norms.

Mutual Fund and Retail Investor Reforms

To promote financial inclusion and investor protection:

• Maximum exit load reduced from 5% to 3%.
• Distributor incentives revised to encourage inflows from B-30 cities and women investors.
• Enhanced transparency in investor reporting and compliance requirements.

Significance and Implications

• For India’s markets: Provides operational flexibility for large issuers, simplifies compliance, and reduces procedural hurdles for trusted foreign investors.
• For global competitiveness: Positions India as a stable, long-term investment hub amid capital volatility.
• For retail investors: Encourages broader participation from smaller cities and underrepresented groups, aligning with inclusive financial growth objectives.

Overall, SEBI’s reforms reflect a balance between market facilitation, investor protection, and governance standards, reinforcing India’s ambition to be an attractive, transparent, and globally competitive capital market.

In News:

India and Mauritius share deep-rooted historical, cultural, and economic ties, which have been further strengthened through recent diplomatic engagements. In September 2025, Prime Minister Narendra Modi met Mauritius PM Navinchandra Ramgoolam in Varanasi, reaffirming the partnership as more than a diplomatic arrangement, describing it as a “family bond” rooted in shared history, values, and strategic interests.

Special Economic Package and Development Cooperation

During the meeting, India announced a special economic package worth $680 million, aimed at supporting Mauritius in infrastructure, healthcare, defence preparedness, and maritime security. Key components of the package include:

• Healthcare: Establishment of a 500-bed Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam National Hospital, an AYUSH Centre of Excellence, and a Veterinary School and Animal Hospital. The first Jan Aushadhi Kendra outside India was also inaugurated.
• Infrastructure: Development of roads, highways, ring roads, and the ATC Tower at SSR International Airport.
• Strategic and Maritime Security: Assistance in Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) surveillance, hydrographic surveys, navigation charting, and maritime domain awareness over the next five years.
• Chagos Marine Protected Area: India will support Mauritius in monitoring, developing, and protecting the Chagos EEZ, following Mauritius’ sovereignty agreement with the UK.

These initiatives are positioned as hard and soft power diplomacy, enhancing India’s strategic reach in the Indian Ocean while improving Mauritius’ development and security capabilities.

Economic and Technological Cooperation

Mauritius is one of India’s closest economic partners in Africa, ranking as the second-largest source of FDI into India after Singapore. The two nations signed the Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) in 2021, India’s first trade deal with an African country. Last year, UPI and RuPay services were launched in Mauritius, and both nations are now exploring trade in local currencies.

India also supports academic and civil service capacity building through collaborations between IIT Madras, Indian Institute of Plantation Management, and the University of Mauritius, as well as the launch of Mission Karmayogi training modules.

Geopolitical and Strategic Significance

Mauritius views India as a trusted partner and net security provider in the Indian Ocean, reinforcing a free, open, and secure maritime domain. India’s support aligns with its Neighbourhood First and Vision Mahasagar policies, countering the growing influence of China, Russia, Iran, and Gulf nations in the region. By assisting Mauritius with EEZ surveillance and maritime capacity building, India strengthens its strategic leverage while bolstering Mauritius’ sovereignty, particularly in the Chagos Archipelago.

Cultural and People-to-People Connect

The bond between the two nations is also cultural and historical. Approximately 70% of Mauritius’ 1.3 million population are of Indian descent, and Indian culture, traditions, and languages are deeply embedded in daily life. During the Varanasi visit, the Mauritian Prime Minister participated in the Ganga Aarti and planned prayers at Shri Kashi Vishwanath Dham, highlighting the symbolic spiritual dimension of bilateral relations.

Conclusion

India’s multi-dimensional engagement with Mauritius demonstrates a blend of strategic foresight, development diplomacy, and cultural affinity. Through the special economic package, maritime cooperation, and people-centric initiatives, India not only strengthens Mauritius’ development and security but also consolidates its influence in a geopolitically vital part of the Indian Ocean, fostering mutual prosperity, stability, and strategic partnership.

In News:

The Supreme Court of India, the apex guardian of constitutional justice, is witnessing an unprecedented surge in pendency, reflecting deeper structural and procedural challenges in the judicial system. As of 2025, according to the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG), the number of pending cases has reached an all-time high of 88,492, comprising 69,605 civil and 18,887 criminal cases. This marks a 35% rise in five years, even as the Court functions at its full sanctioned strength of 34 judges.

Causes of Rising Pendency

• Several systemic factors have contributed to this backlog. Despite digitization and virtual hearing reforms, the rate of disposal lags behind fresh filings — in August 2025 alone, 7,080 cases were filed while only 5,667 were disposed of, indicating a disposal rate of around 80%.
• The limited number of working days, frequent adjournments, and procedural complexities hinder case progression. India’s judge-to-population ratio remains alarmingly low at 21 judges per million people, far below the recommended 50. Moreover, the indiscriminate filing of Special Leave Petitions (SLPs) under Article 136 has transformed the Court into a general appellate body rather than a constitutional one.
• The government, as the largest litigant, contributes nearly 50% of total cases, many of which are repetitive or avoidable. In addition, outdated infrastructure, slow AI integration, and underutilization of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanisms like arbitration and mediation continue to strain the system.

Implications of Judicial Delay

The consequences of prolonged pendency are far-reaching. The oft-quoted maxim “justice delayed is justice denied” holds especially true in India, where delays erode public trust and institutional credibility. Prolonged trials lead to social injustice, particularly for vulnerable groups awaiting resolution of criminal and civil disputes.

Economically, legal uncertainty deters investment, slows contract enforcement, and raises transaction costs. The Indian Justice Report 2025 highlights that over 76% of prisoners are undertrials, leading to chronic prison overcrowding — a direct fallout of judicial delays.

Reform Measures and Innovations

• The Supreme Court has initiated multiple steps under its “Unclogging the Docket” initiative. The Differentiated Case Management (DCM) system categorizes cases based on complexity, allowing short and infructuous cases to be fast-tracked. This reform has achieved a disposal rate of 104%, setting a benchmark for judicial efficiency.
• Arrears Committees monitor long-pending cases and ensure compliance with the Malimath Committee recommendations, which advocate stricter timelines and reduced adjournments. Structural reforms like increasing judicial capacity, reducing vacation periods, and filling vacancies promptly have also been proposed.
• Legislative changes such as the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Acts of 2015 & 2019, the Commercial Courts Act (2018), and amendments to the Negotiable Instruments Act (2018) aim to streamline procedures and promote out-of-court settlements.
• Technological innovations like e-filing, virtual hearings, and the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG) have improved transparency, though integration across courts remains incomplete. The Chief Justice’s recent move to convert part of the summer recess into working days underscores an institutional willingness to reform.

Way Forward

Experts have long advocated for dividing the Supreme Court into a Constitutional Division (for fundamental rights and constitutional issues) and a Legal Division (for statutory appeals), as proposed by the 10th and 11th Law Commissions. Expanding judicial strength, adopting AI-based case management, and promoting ADR mechanisms are equally vital.

Conclusion

The mounting pendency in the Supreme Court underscores a structural crisis demanding urgent multi-pronged reforms. While the Court’s efficiency initiatives and government’s prompt action on judicial appointments are encouraging, sustainable change requires institutional restructuring, procedural streamlining, and technological modernization. Upholding the ideal of “Speedy Justice as a Fundamental Right” is imperative for maintaining the faith of citizens in India’s democratic and judicial institutions.

In News:

The contemporary global order is in the midst of a profound transition. For decades, the international system was dominated by a Western-led order, particularly the United States, which wielded disproportionate influence through control over global finance, technology, media, and international institutions. However, this model now faces a crisis. Blatant violations of international law, unilateral military interventions, trade wars, disregard for multilateralism, and environmental degradation have eroded the credibility of Western dominance.

Rise of the Global South and Civilisational States

Amidst this flux, the Global South—comprising countries across Asia, Africa, and Latin America—has emerged as a collective force asserting strategic autonomy, indigenous development models, and self-reliance in science, technology, and security. Within this, ancient civilisational states like India and Iran occupy a unique position. With their histories of resilience, cultural depth, and governance wisdom, both countries embody values of peace, spirituality, respect for diversity, and sovereignty.

Despite repeated invasions, both civilisations absorbed and reshaped external powers through philosophy, art, and administration. In modern times too, India’s anti-colonial struggle and leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement, and Iran’s oil nationalisation in the 1950s and Islamic Revolution of 1979, underscore their quest for independence.

Contemporary Strategic Convergence

Today, both India and Iran face external pressures but continue to safeguard strategic autonomy. India pursues a balanced foreign policy amidst U.S.-China rivalry, while Iran has withstood sanctions and “economic terrorism” without compromising sovereignty. Their convergence is reflected in:

• Energy and Connectivity: The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and Chabahar Port enhance Eurasian and Indian Ocean linkages.
• Maritime Security: Cooperation in West Asia underlines their shared interest in regional stability.
• Civilisational Diplomacy: Both uphold dialogue, pluralism, and respect for sovereignty as guiding principles.

Palestine: A Symbol of Global South’s Resistance

The Palestinian struggle epitomises the Global South’s broader resistance to domination and double standards in international law. For India and Iran, support for Palestine reflects their commitment to justice, sovereignty, and peaceful conflict resolution.

Towards a Multipolar World Order

The emerging order is increasingly multipolar, with power distributed across diverse actors like India, China, Brazil, and regional middle powers. This shift emphasises equality, mutual respect, and sovereignty rather than unilateral dominance. India and Iran, by combining civilisational heritage with modern strategic partnerships, can shape this transformation in key ways:

• South-South Cooperation: Deepening BRICS, SCO, and NAM as platforms for financial and technological alternatives.
• Reforming Multilateralism: Advocating UN Security Council reform and inclusive global governance.
• Strategic Autonomy: Maintaining independence while deepening Eurasian, African, and Indo-Pacific linkages.
• Civilisational Values: Promoting peace, sustainability, diversity, and human dignity as anchors of a fairer order.

Conclusion

The erosion of Western hegemony presents both challenges and opportunities. India and Iran, rooted in civilisational resilience and guided by strategic independence, are well placed to contribute to the evolution of a just multipolar order. By advancing cooperative frameworks in connectivity, energy, and regional security, and by upholding values of sovereignty and inclusivity, the two nations can not only strengthen their bilateral partnership but also offer the Global South a vision of shared prosperity, dignity, and stability.

Introduction

Vultures, often overlooked in mainstream conservation discourse, are vital ecological assets that deliver critical ecosystem services. As nature’s most efficient waste managers, they swiftly consume animal carcasses, thereby preventing the spread of deadly pathogens such as anthrax, botulism, and rabies. Their decline in South Asia, particularly in India, is not only an ecological concern but also a pressing public health challenge with implications for pandemic preparedness.

Ecological and Public Health Role

Vultures are unique as obligate scavengers capable of consuming large quantities of rotting flesh and bone. By doing so, they prevent the accumulation of carcasses that otherwise become breeding grounds for zoonotic diseases. Studies link the disappearance of vultures to rising cases of rabies and other infections, as feral dogs and rodents, which proliferate in their absence, act as alternative scavengers and reservoirs of disease.

The economic value of this “free service” is immense. Between 1993 and 2006, India’s vulture collapse—among the worst human-caused wildlife die-offs—was estimated to have cost the economy nearly USD 34 billion and indirectly contributed to around 50,000 human deaths due to rabies. This highlights the underestimated yet indispensable role of vultures in sustaining public health and economic stability.

India’s Vulture Crisis

India once hosted more than 40 million vultures, but populations crashed by over 95% since the 1990s, mainly due to the veterinary use of diclofenac, a drug toxic to vultures when ingested through livestock carcasses. Other threats include habitat loss, poisoning, and electrocution from power lines. Although the National Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (2016–25) sought to mitigate these risks, the species remains critically endangered.

The vulture decline demonstrates a direct link between biodiversity loss and increased pandemic risks. Carcass dumps once swarmed with hundreds of vultures, but today many remain unprocessed, heightening risks of disease spillover from animals to humans.

Regional Dimensions: The Central Asian Flyway

Vultures in India are part of the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), a migratory corridor spanning over 30 countries and connecting ecosystems across Asia. Poorly managed landfills, slaughter sites, and carcass dumps along this route can become hotspots for pathogen spillover. Thus, the CAF is not only a biodiversity corridor but also a public health corridor, demanding transboundary collaboration under regional and global frameworks.

Post-2025 Strategy and One Health Approach

As India prepares its post-2025 vulture conservation strategy, a shift from recovery to resilience is crucial. Key priorities include:

• Satellite telemetry to map habitats and carcass hotspots.
• A Decision Support System integrating wildlife, livestock, and health data.
• Embedding vulture conservation within One Health frameworks linking human, animal, and environmental health.
• Cross-border cooperation under CAF to align conservation with global health security.
• Community stewardship, empowering women, youth, and local groups in surveillance and awareness.

Such measures would safeguard vultures as keystone species while strengthening systemic resilience against pandemics at relatively low cost compared to outbreak responses.

Conclusion

Vultures exemplify the interdependence of biodiversity and human health. Their conservation is not merely an ecological obligation but a strategic investment in pandemic preparedness, public health, and economic security. By integrating vulture protection into One Health strategies and regional cooperation frameworks, India can lead in showcasing how biodiversity conservation can double as a frontline defence against future health crises. Protecting vultures, therefore, is not just about saving a species—it is about safeguarding humanity itself.

In News:

In international relations, few ideas have evolved as dynamically as strategic autonomy. Once a subject of academic debate, it is now central to India’s foreign policy. It reflects the country’s determination to take sovereign decisions without succumbing to external pressures or rigid alliances. Neither isolationism nor neutrality, strategic autonomy embodies flexibility, pragmatism, and the ability to engage with multiple powers on one’s own terms.

Historical Roots and Contemporary Shifts

The roots of strategic autonomy lie in India’s colonial past and its post-independence resolve to safeguard sovereignty. Jawaharlal Nehru’s policy of non-alignment during the Cold War laid the foundation. In the contemporary era, this has transformed into a policy of multi-alignment, where India partners with diverse global actors without being tied to any bloc.

The present world order is far from unipolar. U.S. dominance is contested by China’s assertiveness, Russia’s revisionism, and the West’s internal divisions. For India, this fragmented landscape presents both opportunities and dilemmas. Its national interests — territorial integrity, economic development, technological capacity, and regional stability — must be protected while navigating competing pressures.

India and the United States

Over the last two decades, Indo-U.S. relations have grown significantly. Defence cooperation, joint military exercises, intelligence sharing, and technology transfer mark this partnership. India plays a vital role in forums such as the Quad, Indo-Pacific dialogues, I2U2, and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC). Shared concerns about China’s rise also drive convergence.

Yet, friction persists. U.S. tariffs, sanctions, and demands to dilute India’s ties with Russia test New Delhi’s resolve. India’s measured response — engaging deeply but resisting external diktats — reflects strategic autonomy in action. It is not anti-Americanism, but an insistence on independent choices.

China: Rivalry and Engagement

China poses the most complex challenge. The 2020 border clashes exposed the fragility of bilateral ties. Despite strained relations, China remains one of India’s largest trading partners and an influential actor in multilateral bodies like BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). India’s approach balances deterrence with engagement: strengthening border infrastructure, deepening Indo-Pacific partnerships, and simultaneously keeping communication channels open. Strategic autonomy here means neither capitulation nor reckless confrontation.

Russia: Historical Partnership amid Global Shifts

India’s relationship with Russia has endured since the Cold War, anchored in defence cooperation and shared strategic goals. Despite Moscow’s growing dependence on Beijing and its global isolation after the Ukraine conflict, India continues energy imports and defence ties with Russia. While diversifying suppliers and building indigenous defence industries, India refuses to let external powers dictate its Russia policy — again underscoring strategic autonomy.

Broader Dimensions of Autonomy

Strategic autonomy is not confined to geopolitics. In today’s interconnected world, it extends to economic resilience, technological sovereignty, cyber security, and climate diplomacy. India’s initiatives in digital infrastructure, critical minerals, indigenous platforms, and global technology governance highlight its efforts to secure autonomy in new domains.

Domestic stability is equally critical. Economic vulnerabilities, political polarisation, and institutional capacity influence how effectively India can exercise autonomous choices. True autonomy rests on national strength, innovation, and coherence.

Conclusion

India envisions itself as a sovereign pole in a multipolar world — neither aligning blindly nor withdrawing into isolation. Its foreign policy is assertive, interest-driven, and reflective of civilisational depth. As Prime Minister Narendra Modi asserted during India’s G-20 presidency, India seeks to be the “voice of the Global South,” advocating agency and inclusivity.

Strategic autonomy, therefore, is not a slogan but a strategy — the art of balancing major powers while securing national interest. In an era of shifting power equations, India must continue to engage with the U.S. without dependence, deter China without war, and cooperate with Russia without inheriting its isolation. Standing tall, India seeks not to reject the world but to shape its place within it — on its own terms.

In News:

India’s merchandise and services exports, once a key driver of economic growth, face mounting challenges amid global protectionism and domestic structural constraints. Recently, the imposition of a 50% tariff by the United States, which accounts for roughly 20% of India’s exports, threatens stagnation in the country’s largest trading partner market, highlighting vulnerabilities in export competitiveness.

Historical Export Trends

Between 1990 and 2010, India’s exports as a share of GDP rose from 7.1% to 20.4%, supported by liberalisation, reforms, and global integration. Merchandise and services exports contributed jointly, with sectors such as textiles, pharmaceuticals, and IT-BPM emerging as strong performers. However, from 2010 to 2024, India’s export growth decelerated; the GDP share dipped to 17.7% by 2020, recovering only marginally to 21.2% by 2024, while India’s global merchandise share rose modestly from 0.51% (1990) to 1.81% (2024). Most of the early gains were concentrated in the first two decades of liberalisation.

Sector-wise performance shows uneven growth: agricultural exports increased from 0.85% to 2.22%, fuel and mining exports surged from 0.32% to 2.62%, led by petroleum, while manufacturing, despite tripling to 1.73%, continues to lag. Services exports have outperformed goods, rising from 2.9% of global share in 2010 to 4.2% in 2024, largely concentrated in IT, telecom, and business services.

Structural Challenges

India’s exports confront multiple structural constraints:

1. Tariff Shock from US: The punitive 50% tariffs jeopardise India’s most buoyant market and compound the effects of a global slowdown.
2. Competitiveness Erosion: Rising production costs, inefficient logistics, and regulatory complexity reduce India’s global manufacturing edge.
3. Overdependence on Services: India’s services exports are twice that of goods, with IT/ITES dominating and other sectors contributing only around 40%.
4. Narrow Manufacturing Base: While textiles, pharma, steel, and chemicals perform well, high-value sectors such as electronics, precision machinery, and advanced materials remain underrepresented.
5. Global Headwinds: Protectionist policies, reshoring trends, non-tariff barriers, and a weakened WTO dispute settlement system limit India’s options.

Policy Initiatives

Several steps have been undertaken to revive exports:

• Export Promotion Mission (EPM 2025): Sector-specific programs like NiryatProtsahan (credit facilitation) and Niryat Disha (market access, branding, logistics).
• RoDTEP Scheme: Refunds hidden central, state, and local taxes on exports, expanded to steel, pharma, and chemicals.
• Simplified EPCG Scheme: Facilitates duty-free import of capital goods, with eased compliance.
• BHARATI Initiative for Agri-Food Exports: APEDA’s 2025 program to incubate 100 startups with AI quality checks and blockchain traceability.
• E-Commerce Export Hubs: Warehousing, customs clearance, and logistics support for MSMEs.

Way Forward

• Enhance Manufacturing Competitiveness: Improve logistics efficiency (from 13–14% of GDP to global benchmark 8%), integrate with global value chains, and focus on electronics, EVs, green technologies, and semiconductors.
• Diversify Export Markets: Reduce dependence on US/EU markets by targeting Africa, Latin America, and ASEAN; leverage FTAs with UAE, Australia, and UK.
• Deepen Services Export Base: Expand beyond IT to healthcare, tourism, education, financial and creative services.
• Agriculture and Fuels: Promote agro-processing, value addition in petrochemicals, and branded exports.
• Policy and Institutional Support: Advocate WTO reforms, pursue bilateral/multilateral agreements, and incentivise R&D and quality upgradation in MSMEs.

Conclusion

India’s exports face weak merchandise growth, concentrated services reliance, and external shocks such as US tariffs. A multi-pronged strategy—strengthening manufacturing, diversifying markets, deepening services, and fostering value addition—remains critical to reclaim India’s global export momentum and support sustainable economic growth.

Context:

The question of whether caste-based reservations should cross the 50% threshold has re-emerged in policy and judicial debates. Political commitments promising higher quotas, demands for deeper social justice, and judicial reviews—such as the Supreme Court’s recent notice on applying the creamy layer rule to Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs)—have intensified the discussion.

Constitutional Framework

Articles15 and 16 of the Constitution enshrine equality in access to education and public employment while empowering the state to frame special provisions for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs), OBCs, SCs, and STs. At present, the reservation percentages at the Union level are:

• OBCs – 27%, SCs – 15%, STs – 7.5%, and EWS – 10%.This brings the total to 59.5%, already breaching the ceiling in practice. The debate centres on whether these provisions are exceptions to the rule of equality or instruments for achieving substantive equality.

Judicial Trajectory of the 50% Ceiling

• Balaji v. State of Mysore (1962): Declared that reservations should remain “reasonable” and introduced the 50% benchmark.
• State of Kerala v. N.M. Thomas (1975): Shifted focus toward substantive equality, treating reservations as a means to realise real equality.
• Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992): Reaffirmed the 50% cap, upheld 27% OBC quota, and introduced the creamy layer exclusion.
• Janhit Abhiyan (2022): Validated the 10% EWS quota, clarifying that the 50% ceiling applied only to caste-based quotas, thereby legitimising its breach.
• State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh (2024): Suggested extending the creamy layer principle to SCs and STs for equitable distribution of benefits.

Thus, the 50% rule is not a constitutional mandate but a judicially crafted balance.

Arguments for Raising the Ceiling

• Population Profile: Backward classes make up over 60% of India’s population (Mandal Commission, state surveys), yet reservations remain capped.
• Political Demand: States like Bihar have sought quotas up to 85%, citing under-representation.
• Unequal Access Within OBCs: The Rohini Commission reported that 97% of OBC benefits go to 25% of sub-castes, leaving ~1,000 groups unrepresented. Expanding and sub-categorising quotas could address this.
• Substantive Equality: Addressing historical disadvantages may require flexibility in ceilings.
• Precedents: Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Haryana have legislated beyond the 50% cap, reflecting local realities.

Arguments Against Breaching the Cap

• Judicial Safeguards: The 50% rule maintains a balance between equity and merit.
• Unfilled Vacancies: Nearly 40–50% of reserved seats remain vacant; raising quotas without systemic reform will not resolve this.
• Creamy Layer Issues: Without stricter exclusions, higher quotas may further consolidate benefits among dominant groups.
• Efficiency Concerns: Excessive reservations could undermine administrative performance.
• Alternative Tools: Skill-building, better implementation, and private-sector inclusion can deliver justice without endlessly expanding quotas.

Way Ahead

• Caste Census (2027): Data-driven policy-making requires updated and accurate caste data.
• Sub-Categorisation: Implement Rohini Commission recommendations for fairer distribution within OBCs.
• Prioritisation Within SCs/STs: A two-tier system to protect the most deprived sections.
• Flexible Ceiling: Replace rigid caps with evidence-based, contextual ceilings.
• Beyond Reservations: Focus on education, entrepreneurship, healthcare, and livelihood generation.

Conclusion

The 50% ceiling emerged from judicial interpretation rather than constitutional text. While it has served as a stabilising principle, social realities demand a more nuanced approach. Instead of mechanically raising quotas, India must pursue a data-backed, sub-categorised, and efficiency-oriented reservation framework, complemented by investments in human development. This ensures that affirmative action remains an empowerment tool for the truly disadvantaged rather than a political instrument.

Introduction

• Uttarakhand, a state already prone to natural calamities such as cloudbursts, flash floods, and landslides, is witnessing a new and alarming hazard—land subsidence.
• The phenomenon has recently surfaced in Chamoli district’s Nanda Nagar, destroying homes, displacing families, and highlighting the fragile ecological balance of the Himalayan region.

Understanding Land Subsidence

Land subsidence is the gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface, caused when the ground loses its ability to support weight. It may occur due to:

• Natural factors: seismic or volcanic activity, collapse of underground cavities, or compaction of fine-grained deposits.
• Anthropogenic factors: excessive groundwater extraction, mining, subsurface energy withdrawal, or unregulated construction.

Globally, nearly 12 million sq. km of land is susceptible to subsidence, with major hotspots in the USA, China, Iran, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Japan. In India, the Himalayas are increasingly vulnerable due to their fragile geology and unplanned development pressures.

The Chamoli Crisis

• In Nanda Nagar, Band Bazar and Lakshmi Market have become epicentres of subsidence. To date, seven buildings have been destroyed and 16 more are at risk, with cracks widening daily. Water seepage from underground fissures has aggravated fears, prompting diversion efforts by Jal Sansthan using pipelines.
• The disaster has displaced several families. While temporary relief camps have been established in wedding halls, many residents have opted for rented houses due to lack of facilities. 18 families have shifted voluntarily, while only a few essential volunteers remain in the camps. Authorities have provided tin sheets, tarpaulins, and fodder for livestock.
• Local administration and police are engaged in evacuation, restricting access to high-risk areas, and issuing rainfall-triggered alerts. Political representatives, including the local MLA, have assured compensation of ?5 lakh per affected family, aligning it with earlier precedents in nearby Thrali.

Causes and Concerns

The Chamoli episode underlines how over-extraction of groundwater and unregulated urbanisation exacerbate subsidence in mountain ecosystems. Groundwater overexploitation reduces pressure in aquifers, compacting porous formations and triggering ground collapse. Additionally, Himalayan terrain, already tectonically active, becomes more unstable with haphazard infrastructure expansion, tunnelling for hydropower, and inadequate drainage systems.

Impacts

• Infrastructure damage: Buildings, roads, and markets are rendered unsafe.
• Displacement: Families lose homes and livelihoods, straining relief systems.
• Water management challenges: Seepage alters drainage gradients and may increase risks of flooding and salinity intrusion.
• Security implications: Frequent disasters weaken borderland resilience in strategically sensitive districts like Chamoli.

Government Response

Authorities have taken short-term measures including relocation, compensation, and infrastructure support. Police and disaster management teams are actively engaged in restricting hazardous zone entry and ensuring safety. Yet, the lack of long-term risk assessment and early warning systems remains a critical gap.

Way Forward

• Scientific mapping of subsidence-prone areas using satellite and ground-based surveys.
• Regulated groundwater extraction and promotion of rainwater harvesting.
• Disaster-resilient urban planning with strict building codes in ecologically fragile zones.
• Community preparedness through awareness, relocation plans, and livelihood diversification.
• Integrated Himalayan policy, balancing development needs with ecological sustainability.

Conclusion

The Nanda Nagar subsidence crisis is not an isolated incident but part of a broader trend of human-induced ecological stress in fragile Himalayan ecosystems. As disasters intensify in frequency and scale, climate-resilient planning and sustainable resource management must become central to India’s mountain development strategy. Addressing land subsidence requires coordinated scientific, administrative, and community-level interventions to safeguard lives, infrastructure, and ecosystems.

Introduction

Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) has emerged as a cornerstone of India’s foreign policy and regional engagement. Rooted in the ethos of “VasudhaivaKutumbakam” (the world is one family), India has actively extended aid during natural disasters, reflecting both compassion and strategic foresight. The recent dispatch of 21 tonnes of relief material to Afghanistan after the devastating 6.0-magnitude earthquake, which killed over 1,400 people, underlines India’s commitment to humanitarian outreach and its role as a responsible global actor.

Understanding HADR and Soft Diplomacy

• HADR refers to India’s coordinated relief and rescue operations in disaster-hit regions, at home and abroad. It includes the supply of food, medicines, shelter, sanitation, and technical support.
• Soft Diplomacy implies the use of non-coercive instruments—humanitarian aid, cultural goodwill, and capacity-building initiatives—to enhance India’s global influence and strengthen bilateral trust.

Together, HADR and soft diplomacy enable India to project power through empathy rather than force.

Key Features of India’s HADR Approach

• Rapid Response: The Indian Air Force and Navy ensure swift deployment of relief materials and evacuation missions. For instance, the IAF’s strategic airlift capabilities enable timely supply drops in inaccessible regions.
• Inclusive Relief: Aid packages typically include medicines, food, water, tents, blankets, and water purifiers, focusing on essential survival needs.
• Neutral Assistance: India provides aid without attaching political preconditions, strengthening credibility and neutrality.
• Global Footprint: Beyond neighbours, India has extended assistance to Africa, Pacific Island states, and West Asia, thereby widening its humanitarian outreach.
• Institutional Mechanisms: Agencies like NDMA, NDRF, IAF, Indian Navy, and the Ministry of External Affairs ensure coordination for effective large-scale responses.

Strategic Importance of HADR

• Regional Goodwill: India has earned the reputation of being the “first responder” in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region. Operations during the Nepal earthquake (2015), Sri Lanka floods, and Maldives water crisis (2014) highlight this proactive role.
• Trust-Building: Humanitarian gestures strengthen bilateral ties, particularly with vulnerable neighbours such as Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives.
• Soft Power Projection: Such assistance reinforces India’s image as a responsible rising power committed to collective security and humanitarian values.
• Security Dimension: Active engagement through HADR enhances maritime security partnerships and counters external influences in the region, particularly China’s growing footprint in the Indian Ocean.

Contemporary Relevance

In a world marked by climate change, extreme weather events, and fragile states, the frequency of humanitarian crises is increasing. India’s HADR capacity demonstrates both moral leadership and strategic autonomy. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, India’s “Vaccine Maitri” initiative delivered vaccines to over 90 countries, merging humanitarianism with diplomacy.

Furthermore, India’s active participation in multilateral frameworks like BIMSTEC, IORA, and QUAD’s disaster response initiatives showcases its evolving role in shaping global disaster governance.

Challenges

• Logistical hurdles in conflict zones like Afghanistan.
• Resource constraints given India’s vast domestic vulnerabilities.
• The need for greater coordination between civilian and defence agencies.

Conclusion

India’s HADR efforts, anchored in soft diplomacy, reflect a balance of humanitarian compassion and strategic pragmatism. By acting as a credible first responder, India not only saves lives but also nurtures trust, stability, and regional cooperation. In the long run, strengthening institutional mechanisms, enhancing maritime capacity, and integrating climate resilience will further consolidate India’s role as a humanitarian power in a volatile world.

In News:

The Supreme Court of India, the apex judicial body, suffers from a severe gender imbalance, raising questions about inclusivity, representation, and public trust. With the retirement of Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia in August 2025, only one woman judge, Justice B.V. Nagarathna, remains out of a sanctioned strength of 34 judges.

Historically, since 1950, only 11 women judges (3.8%) have been appointed to the Court, beginning with Justice Fathima Beevi in 1989. This under-representation is stark, considering the constitutional guarantees of equality under Articles 14, 15, and 16.

Causes of Gender Imbalance

Several structural and societal factors contribute to this disparity:

• Opaque Collegium System: Judicial appointments are governed by the Collegium, led by the Chief Justice of India and four senior judges. Criteria for selection are neither public nor institutionalised, unlike considerations for caste, religion, or regional representation. Gender, notably, is not treated as a mandatory criterion.
• Late Elevation and Short Tenures: Women judges are often appointed later in their careers, limiting their tenure and chances of rising to senior positions or entering the Collegium. Of the 11 women judges to date, only five have served in the Collegium, and the first woman CJI, Justice Nagarathna, is scheduled for a brief 36-day tenure in 2027.
• Barriers from the Legal Profession: Very few women lawyers are elevated directly from the Bar; only Justice Indu Malhotra has achieved this. Structural biases, gender stereotypes, and lack of mentorship impede women’s career progression in law.
• Institutional and Societal Resistance: Male-dominated professional culture and low political prioritisation of gender diversity exacerbate the exclusion of women from the judiciary.

Implications

• On the Judiciary: The lack of women judges narrows the Court’s perspectives, undermines legitimacy, and limits jurisprudential growth, particularly on gender-sensitive issues. Short tenures prevent women from influencing appointments or policy within the judiciary.
• On Society: The gender gap weakens citizens’ trust in the judiciary, discourages aspiring women lawyers, and contradicts the spirit of constitutional morality. A judiciary that does not reflect societal diversity risks democratic and representative deficits.

Way Forward

• Institutional Reforms: Appointment resolutions should mandate gender diversity. Criteria and reasons for appointments must be publicly disclosed.
• Pipeline Development: Increase women judges in High Courts, encourage women from the Bar through mentorship, and create structured pathways to the higher judiciary.
• Policy Anchoring: Adopt a written diversity policy, integrating constitutional morality and substantive equality, as recommended by the 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission.
• Global Lessons: Countries like Canada and the UK institutionalise diversity in their top courts; India can adopt similar frameworks.

Conclusion

Bridging the gender gap in the Supreme Court is not mere tokenism—it is a constitutional and ethical imperative. Women judges bring unique perspectives, enrich judicial reasoning, and strengthen public confidence in justice. To uphold its credibility as India’s guardian of equality, the Supreme Court must institutionalise gender diversity, ensuring that the judiciary reflects the society it serves.

In News:

The Supreme Court has recently reopened the debate on whether minority institutions should be exempt from the Right to Education (RTE) Act, questioning the validity of the 2014 Pramati Educational and Cultural Trust judgment, which granted blanket immunity to minority schools—both aided and unaided—from RTE provisions. This issue lies at the intersection of Article 21A (Right to Education) and Article 30(1) (minority rights to establish and administer institutions), raising questions of inclusivity, equality, and constitutional morality.

The RTE Act and Its Objectives

Enacted in 2009, the RTE Act operationalises Article 21A, guaranteeing free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14 years. Its key mandates include:

• Government schools: Free education for all.
• Aided schools: Free seats proportional to state funding.
• Private unaided schools: Reservation of 25% seats at entry level for disadvantaged children (Section 12(1)(c)), with state reimbursement.

The Act also prescribes standards on infrastructure, pupil-teacher ratios, teacher eligibility, and prohibits corporal punishment and capitation fees. Rooted in child-centric philosophy, RTE aims to build inclusive classrooms as spaces of democracy, equality, and social justice.

The 2014 Pramati Judgment

A five-judge Constitution Bench ruled that applying RTE to minority institutions violated Article 30(1). It held that enforcing quotas and norms could alter their composition, thereby infringing minority rights. Consequently, both aided and unaided minority schools were exempted from RTE obligations.

Fallout

• Many private schools sought minority status to escape compliance.
• Exemption diluted inclusivity, particularly the 25% quota, undermining the spirit of Article 21A.
• Loopholes allowed elite minority institutions to function without admitting disadvantaged children—even from their own communities.

The 2025 Reconsideration

In September 2025, while hearing a case on the applicability of the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET) to minority schools, a two-judge bench led by Justice Dipankar Datta observed that Pramati had gone too far. The Court argued that: